#muhammad — Public Fediverse posts

Archangel Raphael

The name Raphael comes from the Hebrew Rafa’el, meaning “God has healed” or “Medicine of God.”

He’s not mentioned in the Tanakh/Old Testament or the New Testament; he’s definitely in the Book of Tobit. The Book of Tobit is a deuterocanonical work recognized by Catholic & Orthodox churches. He’s also mentioned in 1 Enoch, both books date from around the 3rd & 2nd centuries BC.

In later Jewish tradition(s), he became identified as 1 of the 3 heavenly visitors entertained by Abraham at the Oak of Mamre. While the Bible doesn’t name him, Midrashic tradition identifies Raphael as 1 sent to heal Abraham’s pain after his circumcision.

Later Christian tradition(s) identified him with healing & as the angel who stirred the waters at the Pool of Bethesda in John 5:2-4. But he isn’t specifically named in this passage.

In Islam, his name is Israfil. He’s understood to be the unnamed angel of Quran 6:73. In this passage, he’s standing with a trumpet to his lips eternally, ready to announce the Day of Judgment.

In Gnostic tradition(s), Raphael is represented on the Ophite Diagram. This diagram is/are a ritual & esoteric diagram used by the Ophite sect of Gnosticism.

In the Book of Tobit, Raphael takes the human form of a man named Azarias. He serves as a protector for young Tobias on a perilous journey to Media. Azarias instructs Tobias on how to use the heart, liver, & gall of a giant fish to create medicinal ointments. These are used to drive away a demon (Asmodeus) & to cure the blindness of Tobias’ dad, Tobit.

Because Raphael safely guided Tobias across vast distances, he became the patron saint of travelers, pilgrims, & even modern-day hitchhikers.

His name comes from the Hebrew meaning “to heal,” & can be translated as “God has healed.” In Tobit, he goes by the name Azariah while in disguise as a man. In the book, he acts like a doctor/physician & expels, uses an extraordinary fish to heal Tobit’s eyes, & binds the demon Asmodeus. While in 1 Enoch, he’s “set over all disease & every wound of the children of the people.” He also binds the armies of Azazel & throws them into the valley of fire.

According to the Babylonian Talmud, Raphael was 1 of 3 angels who appeared to Abraham in the Oak Grove (Oak wood/trees have been used for millennia in spiritual traditions) of Mamre, in the Hebron region.

Michael walked in the middle because he was the “greatest,” with Gabriel on his right & Raphael on his left. Each had a specific mission they were commanded to carry out: Gabriel’s was to destroy Sodom; Michael’s was to tell Sarah that she was going to have Isaac; & Raphael’s was to heal Abraham from his recent circumcision & to save Lot. Now, the healing of the circumcision is HUGE in this context. Because Abraham was the 1st Hebrew/Jew to get a circumcision. AND he was a grown old man when he got it. He wasn’t a baby who’d “forget” the pain & healed up in a couple of days.

In the Midrash Konen, it’s revealed that Raphael was originally named Libbiel (“God is my heart”). In the Midrash, God takes counsel with His angels before He creates Adam, the 1st man. The angels weren’t all of 1 opinion, with differing views & reasons.

The Angel of Love & Angel of Justice both were in favor of Man’s creation as he (humans) would be affectionate & loving, alongside practicing Justice. The Angel of Truth & the Angel of Peace opposed Man’s creation, as he (humans) would be full of lies & be quarrelsome.

To invalidate his protest, God cast the Angel of Truth down from Heaven to Earth. When the others cried out against the treatment of their companion, He said, “Truth will spring back out of the earth.” Before their objections, God had only told the Angels of the good that would be among the humans. But didn’t tell them of the evil, either.

Despite not knowing the whole truth, the angels were nevertheless prompted to cry out: “What is man, that Thou art mindful of him? And the son of man, that Thou visitest him?” God replied: “The fowl of the air & the fish of the sea, what were they created for? Of what avail a larder full of appetizing dainties, & no guest to enjoy them?” The angels couldn’t but exclaim: “O Lord, our Lord, how excellent is Thy name in all the Earth! Do as is pleasing in Thy sight.” For not a few of the angels, their opposition bore fatal consequences.

When God summoned the band under the Archangel Michael & asked their opinion on the creation of man, they answered scornfully: “What in man, that Thou art mindful of him? And the son of man, that Thou visited him?” God stretched out his little finger, & all were consumed by fire except their Chief Michael. And the same fate befell under the leadership of the archangel Gabriel; he alone of all was saved from destruction.

The 3rd band consulted by the Archangel Libbiel. He learned from his predecessors’ horrible fate, so he warned his troops. “You’ve seen what misfortune overtook the angels who said, ‘What is man, that Thou art mindful of him? Let us have care not to do likewise, lest we suffer the same dire punishment. Gor God will not refrain from doing in the end what He has planned. Therefore, we should yield to His wishes.”

Having been warned, the angels spoke: “Lord of the world (Not the universe? Huh.), it’s well that Thou hast thought of creating man. Do Thou create him according to Thy will. And as for us, we’ll be his attendants & his minsters, & reveal unto him all our secrets.”

Thereupon, God changed Archangel Libbiel’s name to Raphael, the Rescuer, because his Host of Angels had been rescued by his sage advice. He was appointed the Angelic Prince of Healing, who has in his safekeeping all the celestial remedies, the types of medical remedies used on Earth.

In the Midrash Tanhuma (a.k.a. Yelammedenu, this is the name given to a homiletic Midrash on the ENTIRE Torah), Satan became envious of the righteous. R. Matthew bar Heresh, after seeing him sitting occupied in Torah study, without looking at anyone’s wife or any other woman.

Believing it to be impossible for a righteous man to exist in the world without sin, Satan asks God how He sees Rabbi Matthew; He sees him as completely righteous. Satan then asks for permission to test Rabbi Matthew (Is this starting to sound like the Job story to anyone else?), which God grants again.

So Satan transforms himself into a beautiful woman upon finding the rabbi studying the Torah. After seeing that Satan would continue to truly & tempt him from all sides. He (the Rabbi) used hot pins to blind himself, so his evil inclination prevailed. Satan trembles in dismay & goes back to report to God.

When God gets the report, He calls Raphael, Prince of the Healing Arts, commanding Raphael to go heal the rabbi’s eyes. When Raphael goes to the rabbi to heal him, Raphael reveals his identity & mission. Rabbi Matthew tells Raphael that he doesn’t want to be healed.

Raphael returns to God & tells God what the rabbi said. When hearing this, God commands Raphael to tell the rabbi not to fear, because his evil inclination will not prevail. When the rabbi heard this from Raphael’s mouth, the rabbi accepted the healing & wasn’t afraid.

In Rabbeinu Bahya, a commentary on the Torah written by Rabbi Bahya ben Asher (1255-1340), the Camp of Ephraim (situated to the west of the Tabernacle (Numbers 2:18)), corresponded to the celestial camp headed by the archangel Raphael, supported by the angels Zavdiel & Achziel.

It’s also said that this is the camp that Moses alluded to when he prayed that Miriam be asked from her tzaraath by saying “please God heal her” (Numbers 12:13). He appealed to the attribute represented by Raphael.

In the Beginning of Wisdom, an introduction to Kabbalistic thought composed by Rabbi Aharon Meir Altshuler (1835-1905) in Warsaw between 1887 and 1893. Raphael is said to be the Sephirah of Tiphereth (Beauty). He’s said to act as an intermediate conduit between Chesed (Kindness) corresponding to Michael, & Din (Judgment) corresponding to Gabriel. Uriel (a.k.a. Nuriel) is also said to act as an intermediate conductor alongside Raphael.

It’s explained that when he inclines to Chesed, he’s called Uriel. But when he inclines Din, he’s called Nuriel. In the same context, the Sefer Ha Bahir calls Raphael, the “Prince of Peace” (“Sar Salom”). The text states that the reconciliation between Michael (the prince of God’s right) & Gabriel (the prince of God’s left) is the meaning of the verse, “He imposes peace in His heights” (Job 23:2). With Raphael being the Archangel of Air that establishes peace between fire & water.

In Kabbalistic astrology, Raphael is most commonly associated with the Sun (alongside Michael) & Mercury (the planet). The Zohar associates him with the image of man in the tetramorph (A symbolic arrangement of 4 differing elements, or the combination of 4 disparate elements in 1 unit) of the Four Holy Living Creatures (these are a class of heavenly beings in Judaism, described in the 1st & 10th chapters of the Book of Ezekiel), alongside the zodiac sign of Aquarius, & in ration to the image of man; the Sephriah of Malkhuth (Kingdom) & the Earth.

As well as Tiphereth & Malkhuth, the Zohar also has Raphael corresponding to the Sephirah of Hod (Majesty), the Euphrates river, the left leg of the body, & the Israelite tribe of Ephraim.

It’s also customary in Judaism to invoke Raphael as 1 of the Four Archangels after 1 recites the Shema (This is a Jewish prayer that serves as a centerpiece of the Jewish morning & evening prayer services.) before going to bed; with Michael by your right side, Gabriel by your left side, Uriel before you, & Raphael behind you.

The New Testament only names 2 archangels (Michael & Gabriel, respectfully). But because of Raphael’s association with healing, he became identified with the unnamed angel of John 5:1-4, who periodically stirred up the Pool of Bethesda.

Because of his actions in the Book of Tobit & the Gospel of John, Raphael is considered a protector & healer. Thus, the patron of travelers, the blind, happy meetings, nurses, physicians, medical workers, matchmakers, Christian marriage, & Catholic studies.

He’s perhaps most seen in depictions of Tobias & the Angel, from the Book of Tobit, showing him walking with Tobias & his dog through a landscape. The subject became very popular in Italy from about 1450 for a century, as devotion to Raphael increased, at least partly through confraternities dedicated to him. A confraternity is generally a Christian voluntary association of laypeople created for the purpose of promoting special works of Christian charity or piety, & approved by the Church hierarchy.

In altarpieces & the like, Tobias, his fish, & his dog may be used as identifying attributes of Raphael.

Raphael is said to guard pilgrims on their journey, & when depicted as a single figure, is often depicted holding a staff. Also, he’s often pictured holding or standing on a fish, which alludes to his healing of Tobit with the fish’s gall. Early mosaics often show him & other archangels in the clothing of a Byzantine courtier.

The feast day of Raphael was included for the 1st time in the General Roman Calendar in 1921, on October 24. With the 1969 revision of the General Roman Calendar, the feast was transferred to September 29 for celebration together with the archangels Saints Michael & Gabriel.

Pope Benedict XVI’s Summorum Pontificum permitted, within certain limits for public use, the General Roman Calendar of 1960, which has October 24 as Raphael’s feast day. He’s commemorated in some Spanish dioceses on the old date & with a procession on May 7 in Cordoba, Spain.

In the Diocese of Warsaw-Praga, he’s commemorated on October 3 (with Michael & Gabriel). The feast was transferred from September 29 (Devotion of St. Florian’s Cathedral).

The archangel Raphael is commemorated by the Eastern Orthodox Church on November 8 in the Synaxis of the Archangel Michael & the Other Bodiless Powers.

In the Oriental Orthodox Churches, the dedication of the church of St. Raphael on the back of a whale is commemorated on August 26 (or 3 Pagumen, this is an intercalary month of the ancient Egyptian, Coptic, & Ethiopean calendars are a period of 5 days in common years & 6 days in leap years in addition to those calendars’ 12 standard months, sometimes reconned as their 13th month.).

The Coptic Orthodox Church celebrates Raphael’s feast on Kouji Nabot 3 & Koiak 13.

In the Antiochian Western Rite Vicariate, St. Raphael the Archangel is commemorated on October 24.

The Archangel Raphael is said to have appeared in Cordoba, Spain, during the 16th century. In response to the city’s appeal, Pope Innocent X allowed the local celebration of a feast in the Archangel’s honor on May 7, the date of the principal apparition.

St. John of God (founder of the Hospital order that bears his name) is also said to have received visitations from Saint Raphael, who encouraged & instructed him.

In tribute to this, many of the Brothers Hospitallers of St. John of God’s facilities are called “Raphael Centers” to this day. The 18th-century Neapolitan nun, St. Maria Francesca of the 5 Wounds, is also said to have seen apparitions of St. Raphael.

In the Mormon tradition, Doctrine & Covenants 128:21 (this is part of a letter dated Sept. 7, 1842) refers to an appearance or manifestation of Raphael to Joseph Smith as 1 of several angels who had appeared to him either together or separately.

Raphael is a venerated archangel, according to Islamic tradition. In Islam, he’s called Israfil. Israfil will blow the trumpet from a holy rock in Jerusalem to announce the Day of Judgment (Yawn al-Qiyamah). The trumpet is constantly poised at his lips, ready to go at Allah’s orders.

Certain Islamic sources indicate that, created at the beginning of time, Israfil has 4 wings, & is so tall as to be able to reach from the earth to the pillars of Heaven. A beautiful angel who is a master of music, Israfil sings praises to God in 1,000 different languages, the breath of which is used to inject life into hosts of angels who add to the songs themselves.

Further, he’s probably the highest angel, since he also mediates between God & other archangels, reading on the Preserved Tablet (al-lawh al-mahfooz) to transmit the commands of God. Although disputed, some reports assert he visited Muhammad prior to the archangel Gabriel.

According to Sufi traditions reported by Imam Rafa’il, the Ghawth or Qutb (‘perfect human being’) is someone who has a heart that resembles that of the archangel Israfil, signifying the loftiness of this angel. The next in are the saints who are known as the Umdah or Awtad, amongst whom the highest ones have their hearts resembling that of the archangel Mikhail (Michael), & the rest of the lower-ranking saints having the heart of Jibrail (Gabriel), & that of the previous prophets before the Islamic prophet Muhammad. The earth is believed to always have 1 of the Qutb.

In another account, Rafa’il is mentioned by name in the Islamic tradition narrated by Ath-Tha’labi from Ali. He’s said to have met Dhu al-Qarnayn, who’s mentioned in the last part of Sura 18 of the Quran, al-Kahf (“The Cave”). Dhu al-Qarnayn (The 2 Horned One) is believed by some to be Alexander the Great.

The angel told Dhu al-Qarnayn about the Water of Life (Ayn al-Hayat). Hearing that there was such a spring, Dhu al-Qarnayn wanted to drink the Water of Life. But the only 1 who had succeeded in drinking it was his cousin, Khidir. In Islamic tradition, Khidr is the mystical guide popularly quoted, especially in Sufi traditions, who has attained a long life & appears to have selected Islamic saints throughout the times.

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Apologetics: Flippin’ Fatwa Friday – The Bible vs. The Quran: Surah al-Baqarah Verses 156-158.

Last time on Flippin’ Fatwa Friday, we covered three issues, talking about good works, the Ka’ba, and jihad. Today, we’re sort-of back to talking about the Ka’ba, though we’ll more specifically be looking at another big part of the Hajj. Let’s take a look at this:

156. Who, when a calamity befalls them, say, ‘Surely, we belong to Allah and to him, of course, we return (and in his will is our peace).’ 157. It is they upon whom descend the benedictions from their Lord and his mercy, and it is they who are guided aright. 158. The Safa and Marwah (- the two eminences near Ka’ba) are certainly (two) of the symbols of Allah, so he who is on Pilgrimage to the house or performs ‘Umrah (- a visit to Ka’ba), there is no blame on him to perform Tawaf (- to run between) the two (eminences), and he who remains thoroughly dutiful and chooses to do good deeds spontaneously, the surely (he will find) Allah is Appreciative and rewards ever good deed done. Surely, Allah is All-Knowing.

I’ve already talked about the pagan origins of the Ka’ba and the Black Stone, but one of the things I sadly forgot to mention was how the Hajj also includes running between two small hills, the Safa and Marwa, seven times. This verse is the only time where this practice is mentioned, and it isn’t really elaborated on in the Quran.

The pagan origins of this practice aren’t something that can only be found through spending hours flipping through history books or scrolling on Google. It’s readily admitted in the hadiths that this practice stems from Arabian pagans. For example, Sahih Bukhari 4496 says:

Narrated `Asim bin Sulaiman:
I asked Anas bin Malik about Safa and Marwa. Anas replied, “We used to consider (i.e. going around) them a custom of the Pre-islamic period of Ignorance, so when Islam came, we gave up going around them. Then Allah revealed: “Verily, Safa and Marwa (i.e. two mountains at Mecca) are among the Symbols of Allah. So it is not harmful of those who perform the Hajj of the House (of Allah) or perform the Umra to ambulate (Tawaf) between them.” 

Stange how pagan customs were never absorbed into Judaism or Christianity by God. Why would Allah make a pagan custom something that is mandatory in Islam?

The reason for this has much to do with what I’ve mentioned in previous posts about the Hajj. It was all to gain a following. Muhammad knew that these customs were important to the people groups he knew. It wasn’t something they would give up easily. Thus, he simply absorbed them into Islam to make it more palatable for them.

Until next time,

M.J.

Apologetics: Flippin’ Fatwa Friday – The Bible vs. The Quran: Surah al-Baqarah Verses 156-158.

Last time on Flippin’ Fatwa Friday, we covered three issues, talking about good works, the Ka’ba, and jihad. Today, we’re sort-of back to talking about the Ka’ba, though we’ll more specifically be looking at another big part of the Hajj. Let’s take a look at this:

156. Who, when a calamity befalls them, say, ‘Surely, we belong to Allah and to him, of course, we return (and in his will is our peace).’ 157. It is they upon whom descend the benedictions from their Lord and his mercy, and it is they who are guided aright. 158. The Safa and Marwah (- the two eminences near Ka’ba) are certainly (two) of the symbols of Allah, so he who is on Pilgrimage to the house or performs ‘Umrah (- a visit to Ka’ba), there is no blame on him to perform Tawaf (- to run between) the two (eminences), and he who remains thoroughly dutiful and chooses to do good deeds spontaneously, the surely (he will find) Allah is Appreciative and rewards ever good deed done. Surely, Allah is All-Knowing.

I’ve already talked about the pagan origins of the Ka’ba and the Black Stone, but one of the things I sadly forgot to mention was how the Hajj also includes running between two small hills, the Safa and Marwa, seven times. This verse is the only time where this practice is mentioned, and it isn’t really elaborated on in the Quran.

The pagan origins of this practice aren’t something that can only be found through spending hours flipping through history books or scrolling on Google. It’s readily admitted in the hadiths that this practice stems from Arabian pagans. For example, Sahih Bukhari 4496 says:

Narrated `Asim bin Sulaiman:
I asked Anas bin Malik about Safa and Marwa. Anas replied, “We used to consider (i.e. going around) them a custom of the Pre-islamic period of Ignorance, so when Islam came, we gave up going around them. Then Allah revealed: “Verily, Safa and Marwa (i.e. two mountains at Mecca) are among the Symbols of Allah. So it is not harmful of those who perform the Hajj of the House (of Allah) or perform the Umra to ambulate (Tawaf) between them.” 

Stange how pagan customs were never absorbed into Judaism or Christianity by God. Why would Allah make a pagan custom something that is mandatory in Islam?

The reason for this has much to do with what I’ve mentioned in previous posts about the Hajj. It was all to gain a following. Muhammad knew that these customs were important to the people groups he knew. It wasn’t something they would give up easily. Thus, he simply absorbed them into Islam to make it more palatable for them.

Until next time,

M.J.

Apologetics: Flippin’ Fatwa Friday – The Bible vs. The Quran: Surah al-Baqarah Verses 156-158.

Last time on Flippin’ Fatwa Friday, we covered three issues, talking about good works, the Ka’ba, and jihad. Today, we’re sort-of back to talking about the Ka’ba, though we’ll more specifically be looking at another big part of the Hajj. Let’s take a look at this:

156. Who, when a calamity befalls them, say, ‘Surely, we belong to Allah and to him, of course, we return (and in his will is our peace).’ 157. It is they upon whom descend the benedictions from their Lord and his mercy, and it is they who are guided aright. 158. The Safa and Marwah (- the two eminences near Ka’ba) are certainly (two) of the symbols of Allah, so he who is on Pilgrimage to the house or performs ‘Umrah (- a visit to Ka’ba), there is no blame on him to perform Tawaf (- to run between) the two (eminences), and he who remains thoroughly dutiful and chooses to do good deeds spontaneously, the surely (he will find) Allah is Appreciative and rewards ever good deed done. Surely, Allah is All-Knowing.

I’ve already talked about the pagan origins of the Ka’ba and the Black Stone, but one of the things I sadly forgot to mention was how the Hajj also includes running between two small hills, the Safa and Marwa, seven times. This verse is the only time where this practice is mentioned, and it isn’t really elaborated on in the Quran.

The pagan origins of this practice aren’t something that can only be found through spending hours flipping through history books or scrolling on Google. It’s readily admitted in the hadiths that this practice stems from Arabian pagans. For example, Sahih Bukhari 4496 says:

Narrated `Asim bin Sulaiman:
I asked Anas bin Malik about Safa and Marwa. Anas replied, “We used to consider (i.e. going around) them a custom of the Pre-islamic period of Ignorance, so when Islam came, we gave up going around them. Then Allah revealed: “Verily, Safa and Marwa (i.e. two mountains at Mecca) are among the Symbols of Allah. So it is not harmful of those who perform the Hajj of the House (of Allah) or perform the Umra to ambulate (Tawaf) between them.” 

Stange how pagan customs were never absorbed into Judaism or Christianity by God. Why would Allah make a pagan custom something that is mandatory in Islam?

The reason for this has much to do with what I’ve mentioned in previous posts about the Hajj. It was all to gain a following. Muhammad knew that these customs were important to the people groups he knew. It wasn’t something they would give up easily. Thus, he simply absorbed them into Islam to make it more palatable for them.

Until next time,

M.J.

Apologetics: Flippin’ Fatwa Friday – The Bible vs. The Quran: Surah al-Baqarah Verses 156-158.

Last time on Flippin’ Fatwa Friday, we covered three issues, talking about good works, the Ka’ba, and jihad. Today, we’re sort-of back to talking about the Ka’ba, though we’ll more specifically be looking at another big part of the Hajj. Let’s take a look at this:

156. Who, when a calamity befalls them, say, ‘Surely, we belong to Allah and to him, of course, we return (and in his will is our peace).’ 157. It is they upon whom descend the benedictions from their Lord and his mercy, and it is they who are guided aright. 158. The Safa and Marwah (- the two eminences near Ka’ba) are certainly (two) of the symbols of Allah, so he who is on Pilgrimage to the house or performs ‘Umrah (- a visit to Ka’ba), there is no blame on him to perform Tawaf (- to run between) the two (eminences), and he who remains thoroughly dutiful and chooses to do good deeds spontaneously, the surely (he will find) Allah is Appreciative and rewards ever good deed done. Surely, Allah is All-Knowing.

I’ve already talked about the pagan origins of the Ka’ba and the Black Stone, but one of the things I sadly forgot to mention was how the Hajj also includes running between two small hills, the Safa and Marwa, seven times. This verse is the only time where this practice is mentioned, and it isn’t really elaborated on in the Quran.

The pagan origins of this practice aren’t something that can only be found through spending hours flipping through history books or scrolling on Google. It’s readily admitted in the hadiths that this practice stems from Arabian pagans. For example, Sahih Bukhari 4496 says:

Narrated `Asim bin Sulaiman:
I asked Anas bin Malik about Safa and Marwa. Anas replied, “We used to consider (i.e. going around) them a custom of the Pre-islamic period of Ignorance, so when Islam came, we gave up going around them. Then Allah revealed: “Verily, Safa and Marwa (i.e. two mountains at Mecca) are among the Symbols of Allah. So it is not harmful of those who perform the Hajj of the House (of Allah) or perform the Umra to ambulate (Tawaf) between them.” 

Stange how pagan customs were never absorbed into Judaism or Christianity by God. Why would Allah make a pagan custom something that is mandatory in Islam?

The reason for this has much to do with what I’ve mentioned in previous posts about the Hajj. It was all to gain a following. Muhammad knew that these customs were important to the people groups he knew. It wasn’t something they would give up easily. Thus, he simply absorbed them into Islam to make it more palatable for them.

Until next time,

M.J.

Apologetics: Flippin’ Fatwa Friday – The Bible vs. The Quran: Surah al-Baqarah Verses 156-158.

Last time on Flippin’ Fatwa Friday, we covered three issues, talking about good works, the Ka’ba, and jihad. Today, we’re sort-of back to talking about the Ka’ba, though we’ll more specifically be looking at another big part of the Hajj. Let’s take a look at this:

156. Who, when a calamity befalls them, say, ‘Surely, we belong to Allah and to him, of course, we return (and in his will is our peace).’ 157. It is they upon whom descend the benedictions from their Lord and his mercy, and it is they who are guided aright. 158. The Safa and Marwah (- the two eminences near Ka’ba) are certainly (two) of the symbols of Allah, so he who is on Pilgrimage to the house or performs ‘Umrah (- a visit to Ka’ba), there is no blame on him to perform Tawaf (- to run between) the two (eminences), and he who remains thoroughly dutiful and chooses to do good deeds spontaneously, the surely (he will find) Allah is Appreciative and rewards ever good deed done. Surely, Allah is All-Knowing.

I’ve already talked about the pagan origins of the Ka’ba and the Black Stone, but one of the things I sadly forgot to mention was how the Hajj also includes running between two small hills, the Safa and Marwa, seven times. This verse is the only time where this practice is mentioned, and it isn’t really elaborated on in the Quran.

The pagan origins of this practice aren’t something that can only be found through spending hours flipping through history books or scrolling on Google. It’s readily admitted in the hadiths that this practice stems from Arabian pagans. For example, Sahih Bukhari 4496 says:

Narrated `Asim bin Sulaiman:
I asked Anas bin Malik about Safa and Marwa. Anas replied, “We used to consider (i.e. going around) them a custom of the Pre-islamic period of Ignorance, so when Islam came, we gave up going around them. Then Allah revealed: “Verily, Safa and Marwa (i.e. two mountains at Mecca) are among the Symbols of Allah. So it is not harmful of those who perform the Hajj of the House (of Allah) or perform the Umra to ambulate (Tawaf) between them.” 

Stange how pagan customs were never absorbed into Judaism or Christianity by God. Why would Allah make a pagan custom something that is mandatory in Islam?

The reason for this has much to do with what I’ve mentioned in previous posts about the Hajj. It was all to gain a following. Muhammad knew that these customs were important to the people groups he knew. It wasn’t something they would give up easily. Thus, he simply absorbed them into Islam to make it more palatable for them.

Until next time,

M.J.

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Visit the mountains to bring peace to your soul. Prophets like Muhammad, Jesus, and Moses also sought spiritual solace and closeness to God by dwelling in the mountains.
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Visit the mountains to bring peace to your soul. Prophets like Muhammad, Jesus, and Moses also sought spiritual solace and closeness to God by dwelling in the mountains.
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Visit the mountains to bring peace to your soul. Prophets like Muhammad, Jesus, and Moses also sought spiritual solace and closeness to God by dwelling in the mountains.
#Outdoor #adventure #travel #nature #photography #silence #alpine #alps #peace #mountainview #relex #FreshnessOfSoul #Karakoram #explore #landscape #mountainlife #cold #snow #greenery #lakes #freshAir #flowers #wildlife #BeaurifulWeather #God #prophet #Muhammad #Jesus #Moses #SpirtualLife
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Apologetics: Flippin’ Fatwa Friday – A Comparison of Claims About the Insanity of Jesus and the Insanity of Muhammad. (Part 3)

Over the last two Flippin’ Fatwa Friday posts, I’ve discussed the possibility that Muhammad and Jesus were either epileptic or insane. Jesus repeatedly proved Himself to be of sound mind and didn’t show any sign of epilepsy. Muhammad didn’t pass so cleanly, with the theory that he had epilepsy or a personality disorder still standing. However, if neither man were epileptic or insane, this leaves what’s possibly the oldest and most serious accusation against either of them: demon possession. 

Demonic possession manifests itself in different ways and can look like psychological dysfunction. (15) According to the instances of demon possession recorded in the Bible, demon possessed people can’t control themselves, exhibit new personalities and abilities, (Matt 8:29, 9:33, 12:22, Mark 1:23-24) speak in a different voice or make them mute, (Mark 5:9, Luke 11:14) have supernatural knowledge (Acts 16:16-18), and tend to be suicidal. (Matthew 17:14-21, Mark 9:14-29, Luke 9:37-43, 17:6) (3, 15)  

In the Bible, Jesus was accused of being demon possessed numerous times. In Luke 11:15, after Jesus had driven out a demon that made a person mute, some of the members of the crowd said, “By Beelzebul, the prince of demons, he is driving out demons.” Similar accusations are found in Matthew 12:24, Mark 3:21-22, John 7:20, 8:48, 8:52, and 10:20. (3) 

 However, Jesus’ responses consistently disproved these claims. (Matthew 12:22-32, Mark 2:12, 3:22-30, 5:1-20, Luke 4:33-37, 11:14-23, and John 10:21) (3) At one point, he said, “Every kingdom divided against itself is ruined. And every city or household divided against itself will not last. If Satan forces Satan out, he is divided against himself. How, then, can his kingdom last? If I force demons out of people with the help of Beelzebul, who helps your followers force them out? That’s why they will be your judges. But if I force demons out with the help of God’s Spirit, then the kingdom of God has come to you.” (Matthew 12:25-28) (3) 

In Muhammad’s case, he cannot effectively fend off this accusation. In fact, the charge that he was possessed has perhaps the best evidence to support it. Throughout Muhammad’s life, he experienced periods of great spiritual oppression or delusion. (22) Ibn Saad records that during Muhammad’s childhood, Halima would see a cloud shadowing him during severe heat. (10) This so greatly scared her that it prompted her to send him back to Aaminah. (7, 10) In Guillaume’s translation of Ibn Ishaw, page 72: “His [Muhammad’s friends] father said to me, ‘I am afraid that this child has had a stroke, so take him back to his family before the result appears. … She [Muhammad’s mother] asked me what happened and gave me no peace until I told her. When she asked if I feared a demon had possessed him, I replied that I did.” (paragraph 5) (13) 

Various accounts of Muhammad’s first revelation are also damning. According to Karen Armstrong, ““Muhammad was torn from his sleep in his mountain cave and felt himself overwhelmed by a devastating divine presence. Later he explained this ineffable experience by saying that an angel had enveloped him in a terrifying embrace so that it felt as though the breath was being forced from his body.” (paragraph 5, sentence 1-2) (22) Sahih Muslim 160a writes, ““Then the Prophet returned therewith, his heart was trembling, and he went to Khadija and said: Wrap me up, wrap me up! So, they wrapped him till the fear had left him. He then said to Khadija: O Khadija! What has happened to me? And he informed her of the happening, saying: I fear for myself.” (1) Sahih Bukhari 4951 also says, “Then Allah’s Messenger returned with that experience; and the muscles between his neck and shoulders were trembling till he came upon Khadija (his wife) and said, ‘Cover me!’ They covered him, and when the state of fear was over, he said to Khadija, ‘O Khadija! What is wrong with me? I was afraid that something bad might happen to me.” (1)  

Ibn Ishaq and many of Muhammad’s contemporaries also agreed that he believed himself to be possessed and became suicidal afterwards. (22)  Islamic scholar al-Tabari, records that when the revelations ceased for a period of six months to three years, Muhammad became depressed and repeatedly attempted to jump off cliffs and mountain crags. (13) Guillaume’s The Life of Muhammad, page 106 contains Tabari’s record of what Muhammad said: “Now none of God’s creatures was more hateful to me than an (ecstatic) poet or a man possessed: I could not even look at them. I thought, Woe is me poet or possessed – Never shall Quraysh say this of me! I will go to the top of the mountain and throw myself down that I may kill myself and gain rest.” (Paragraph 13-paragraph 14, sentence 1-5) (13)  

When compared to the accounts of angelic encounters in the Bible, Muhammad’s initial encounter with Gabriel sounds more akin to the cases of demon possession found in the Bible. Whenever people in the Bible meet an angel, the angel always comforts them with the phrase, “Do not be afraid.” (Gen 15:1, 26:24, 46: 3; Dan 8:15-29, 10:12, 19; Matt 28:5, 10; Luke 1:13, 26-31, 2:10; Rev. 1:17) (3, 22) Then, after the visit from the angel or God Himself, while the people are understandably shaken and filled with reverent fear, they never experienced depression, much less suicidality. (13) In fact, many who were visited by God in the Bible were blessed with the opportunity to fellowship with Him. (Gen 3-4, 6, 12-18, Exodus 3-34, Isaiah 6, Luke 2, Acts 9) (13) With Muhammad’s encounter with Gabriel, none of that is present. 

Interestingly, the accusations from Muhammad’s contemporaries that he was possessed aren’t just found in the hadiths. Record of these accusations can also be found in the Quran in verses and passages such as surah 15:6, (2) 44:14, and 37:36, (2, 22), 81:22-25, 69:41-42. (2, 13) The reason for these accusations, according to Tabari, could be rooted in a superstition from the pre-Islamic Arabs who believed in the demon of poetry. (13) The pre-Islamic Arabs believed that great poets were directly inspired by demons, which, combined with the fact that early Quranic revelations were poetic in nature, may explain why Muhammad’s contemporaries and Muhammad himself believed him to be demon possessed. (13, 22) So great was this belief that Muhammad was possessed that there are numerous verses dedicated to rebutting these claims, such as surah 7:184, 23:70, 34:36 52:29, 68:2, 81:22. (2) Further evidence that Muhammad had strange experiences with spiritual entities is found in Sahih Bukhari 3421, which records that he was attacked by jinn during prayer. (1) 

Other accounts that support the claim that Muhammad was possessed is the infamous story of the Satanic Verses, which make up surah 53:19-23. (2, 11) According to accounts from Ibn Sa’d and al-Tabari in The Life of Muhammad, when Muhammad’s following was still small in Mecca, he revealed verses that pleased the Meccan leaders because it declared the existence of and endorsed the worship of three goddesses who were worshipped there. (11) When later questioned about it, Muhammad retracted it, (11) and claimed that Satan put those verses in his mouth. (13)  

Additionally, various hadiths (i.e. Sahih Bukhari 4.490, 7.660, 7.661, 7.658, 8.89, 8.400) record an incident in which Muhammad was bewitched for a year, believing that he was having sexual relations with his wives when he wasn’t (13, 22) and was also referenced by Ibn Hisham in The Life of Muhammad. (13) Aisha narrates in Sahih Bukhari 3175, “Once the Prophet was bewitched so that he began to imagine that he had done a thing which in fact he had not done.” (1) Sahih Bukhari 6391, also records this and said, “[…] Allah’s Messenger was affected by magic, so much that he used to think that he had done something which in fact, he did not do, and he invoke his Lord (for a remedy). Then (one day) he said, ‘O Aisha! Do you know that Allah has advised me as to the problem I consulted him about?’ Aisha said, ‘O Allah’s Messenger! What’s that?’ He said, ‘Two mean came to me and one of them sat at my head and the other at my feet, and one of them asked his companion, ‘What is wrong with this man?’ The later replied, ‘He is under the effect of magic.’” (1)  It continues, saying, “Allah’s Messenger went to that well and returned to Aisha, saying, ‘By Allah, the water (of the well) was as red as the infusion of Hinna, and the date-palm trees look like the heads of devils.’” (1)  

People’s reaction to Gabriel were also telling, with as non-Muslims called Gabriel “Satan.” (Sahih Bukhari 2.225) (13) Aisha also couldn’t see Gabriel, (Sahih Bukhari 4.440) Muslims and non-Muslims thought Gabriel was a man named Dihya al-Kalbi (Sahih Bukhari 4.827), and Khadija couldn’t see him. (Life of Muhammad) (13) Gabriel also exhibited behavior that was inconsistent with a real angel of God, such as refusing to go into a house with a dog or picture, (Sahih Bukhari 4.450) didn’t understand genetics, (Sahih Bukhari 4.546), was unable to heal Muhammad when he prayed for him, and was responsible for the massacre of a Jewish tribe of Bani Qurayza. (Sahih Bukhari 5.448) (13) 

Finally, as compared to biblical prophets – specifically those who the Apostle Peter describes – Muhammad’s revelations were closer to those of a spiritist or channeler. (22) John Gilchrist, a South African Christian author and well-known authority on Islam compares Muhammad’s revelations to the epileptic boy in Matthew 17, Mark 9, and Luke 9 who was demon possessed. (22) His conclusion was that it’s possible that Muhammad could’ve been such a case, with occultic influences causing epilepsy-like symptoms without amnesia, which has been recorded as happening to oriental ecstatics and mystics by missionaries and others. (22) Even more damning that Muhammad was a false prophet who may have been demon possessed is that not only did Muhammad die of poisoning at the hands of a Jewish woman after the conquest of Khaybar, (11, 13) but all of his male children died when they were very young. (13) Why this is important is because in Jeremiah 23:15, 34, God says that He will punish false prophets via “bitter food” and “poisoned water,” and that He would “punish that man and his household.” (13)  

Overall, while it’s almost impossible to give a concrete diagnosis of the mental, spiritual, or neurological state of Jesus or Muhammad, from what we know of their lives, we can see if there is at least the potential that they suffered from some sort of disorder or spiritual oppression. While Jesus Christ has been repeatedly accused of having epilepsy, various personality disorders, or being demon possessed, He has repeatedly proved Himself to be completely sane. He denied being possessed, never acted as one demon possessed, and showed no symptoms of epilepsy or any personality disorders.  Muhammad, however, when faced with similar accusations, is unable to give a satisfying rebuttal. From the accounts given by the hadiths and various Islamic scholars, the belief that Muhammad had epilepsy, a personality disorder, or was demonically possessed finds ground. There are strange accounts that support each theory, leading some to even speculate that he had a combination of all three. Either way, it’s clear that while Jesus was perfectly sane and was who He said He was, Muhammad was most likely a madman. 

Until next time,

M.J.

Apologetics: Flippin’ Fatwa Friday – A Comparison of Claims About the Insanity of Jesus and the Insanity of Muhammad. (Part 3)

Over the last two Flippin’ Fatwa Friday posts, I’ve discussed the possibility that Muhammad and Jesus were either epileptic or insane. Jesus repeatedly proved Himself to be of sound mind and didn’t show any sign of epilepsy. Muhammad didn’t pass so cleanly, with the theory that he had epilepsy or a personality disorder still standing. However, if neither man were epileptic or insane, this leaves what’s possibly the oldest and most serious accusation against either of them: demon possession. 

Demonic possession manifests itself in different ways and can look like psychological dysfunction. (15) According to the instances of demon possession recorded in the Bible, demon possessed people can’t control themselves, exhibit new personalities and abilities, (Matt 8:29, 9:33, 12:22, Mark 1:23-24) speak in a different voice or make them mute, (Mark 5:9, Luke 11:14) have supernatural knowledge (Acts 16:16-18), and tend to be suicidal. (Matthew 17:14-21, Mark 9:14-29, Luke 9:37-43, 17:6) (3, 15)  

In the Bible, Jesus was accused of being demon possessed numerous times. In Luke 11:15, after Jesus had driven out a demon that made a person mute, some of the members of the crowd said, “By Beelzebul, the prince of demons, he is driving out demons.” Similar accusations are found in Matthew 12:24, Mark 3:21-22, John 7:20, 8:48, 8:52, and 10:20. (3) 

 However, Jesus’ responses consistently disproved these claims. (Matthew 12:22-32, Mark 2:12, 3:22-30, 5:1-20, Luke 4:33-37, 11:14-23, and John 10:21) (3) At one point, he said, “Every kingdom divided against itself is ruined. And every city or household divided against itself will not last. If Satan forces Satan out, he is divided against himself. How, then, can his kingdom last? If I force demons out of people with the help of Beelzebul, who helps your followers force them out? That’s why they will be your judges. But if I force demons out with the help of God’s Spirit, then the kingdom of God has come to you.” (Matthew 12:25-28) (3) 

In Muhammad’s case, he cannot effectively fend off this accusation. In fact, the charge that he was possessed has perhaps the best evidence to support it. Throughout Muhammad’s life, he experienced periods of great spiritual oppression or delusion. (22) Ibn Saad records that during Muhammad’s childhood, Halima would see a cloud shadowing him during severe heat. (10) This so greatly scared her that it prompted her to send him back to Aaminah. (7, 10) In Guillaume’s translation of Ibn Ishaw, page 72: “His [Muhammad’s friends] father said to me, ‘I am afraid that this child has had a stroke, so take him back to his family before the result appears. … She [Muhammad’s mother] asked me what happened and gave me no peace until I told her. When she asked if I feared a demon had possessed him, I replied that I did.” (paragraph 5) (13) 

Various accounts of Muhammad’s first revelation are also damning. According to Karen Armstrong, ““Muhammad was torn from his sleep in his mountain cave and felt himself overwhelmed by a devastating divine presence. Later he explained this ineffable experience by saying that an angel had enveloped him in a terrifying embrace so that it felt as though the breath was being forced from his body.” (paragraph 5, sentence 1-2) (22) Sahih Muslim 160a writes, ““Then the Prophet returned therewith, his heart was trembling, and he went to Khadija and said: Wrap me up, wrap me up! So, they wrapped him till the fear had left him. He then said to Khadija: O Khadija! What has happened to me? And he informed her of the happening, saying: I fear for myself.” (1) Sahih Bukhari 4951 also says, “Then Allah’s Messenger returned with that experience; and the muscles between his neck and shoulders were trembling till he came upon Khadija (his wife) and said, ‘Cover me!’ They covered him, and when the state of fear was over, he said to Khadija, ‘O Khadija! What is wrong with me? I was afraid that something bad might happen to me.” (1)  

Ibn Ishaq and many of Muhammad’s contemporaries also agreed that he believed himself to be possessed and became suicidal afterwards. (22)  Islamic scholar al-Tabari, records that when the revelations ceased for a period of six months to three years, Muhammad became depressed and repeatedly attempted to jump off cliffs and mountain crags. (13) Guillaume’s The Life of Muhammad, page 106 contains Tabari’s record of what Muhammad said: “Now none of God’s creatures was more hateful to me than an (ecstatic) poet or a man possessed: I could not even look at them. I thought, Woe is me poet or possessed – Never shall Quraysh say this of me! I will go to the top of the mountain and throw myself down that I may kill myself and gain rest.” (Paragraph 13-paragraph 14, sentence 1-5) (13)  

When compared to the accounts of angelic encounters in the Bible, Muhammad’s initial encounter with Gabriel sounds more akin to the cases of demon possession found in the Bible. Whenever people in the Bible meet an angel, the angel always comforts them with the phrase, “Do not be afraid.” (Gen 15:1, 26:24, 46: 3; Dan 8:15-29, 10:12, 19; Matt 28:5, 10; Luke 1:13, 26-31, 2:10; Rev. 1:17) (3, 22) Then, after the visit from the angel or God Himself, while the people are understandably shaken and filled with reverent fear, they never experienced depression, much less suicidality. (13) In fact, many who were visited by God in the Bible were blessed with the opportunity to fellowship with Him. (Gen 3-4, 6, 12-18, Exodus 3-34, Isaiah 6, Luke 2, Acts 9) (13) With Muhammad’s encounter with Gabriel, none of that is present. 

Interestingly, the accusations from Muhammad’s contemporaries that he was possessed aren’t just found in the hadiths. Record of these accusations can also be found in the Quran in verses and passages such as surah 15:6, (2) 44:14, and 37:36, (2, 22), 81:22-25, 69:41-42. (2, 13) The reason for these accusations, according to Tabari, could be rooted in a superstition from the pre-Islamic Arabs who believed in the demon of poetry. (13) The pre-Islamic Arabs believed that great poets were directly inspired by demons, which, combined with the fact that early Quranic revelations were poetic in nature, may explain why Muhammad’s contemporaries and Muhammad himself believed him to be demon possessed. (13, 22) So great was this belief that Muhammad was possessed that there are numerous verses dedicated to rebutting these claims, such as surah 7:184, 23:70, 34:36 52:29, 68:2, 81:22. (2) Further evidence that Muhammad had strange experiences with spiritual entities is found in Sahih Bukhari 3421, which records that he was attacked by jinn during prayer. (1) 

Other accounts that support the claim that Muhammad was possessed is the infamous story of the Satanic Verses, which make up surah 53:19-23. (2, 11) According to accounts from Ibn Sa’d and al-Tabari in The Life of Muhammad, when Muhammad’s following was still small in Mecca, he revealed verses that pleased the Meccan leaders because it declared the existence of and endorsed the worship of three goddesses who were worshipped there. (11) When later questioned about it, Muhammad retracted it, (11) and claimed that Satan put those verses in his mouth. (13)  

Additionally, various hadiths (i.e. Sahih Bukhari 4.490, 7.660, 7.661, 7.658, 8.89, 8.400) record an incident in which Muhammad was bewitched for a year, believing that he was having sexual relations with his wives when he wasn’t (13, 22) and was also referenced by Ibn Hisham in The Life of Muhammad. (13) Aisha narrates in Sahih Bukhari 3175, “Once the Prophet was bewitched so that he began to imagine that he had done a thing which in fact he had not done.” (1) Sahih Bukhari 6391, also records this and said, “[…] Allah’s Messenger was affected by magic, so much that he used to think that he had done something which in fact, he did not do, and he invoke his Lord (for a remedy). Then (one day) he said, ‘O Aisha! Do you know that Allah has advised me as to the problem I consulted him about?’ Aisha said, ‘O Allah’s Messenger! What’s that?’ He said, ‘Two mean came to me and one of them sat at my head and the other at my feet, and one of them asked his companion, ‘What is wrong with this man?’ The later replied, ‘He is under the effect of magic.’” (1)  It continues, saying, “Allah’s Messenger went to that well and returned to Aisha, saying, ‘By Allah, the water (of the well) was as red as the infusion of Hinna, and the date-palm trees look like the heads of devils.’” (1)  

People’s reaction to Gabriel were also telling, with as non-Muslims called Gabriel “Satan.” (Sahih Bukhari 2.225) (13) Aisha also couldn’t see Gabriel, (Sahih Bukhari 4.440) Muslims and non-Muslims thought Gabriel was a man named Dihya al-Kalbi (Sahih Bukhari 4.827), and Khadija couldn’t see him. (Life of Muhammad) (13) Gabriel also exhibited behavior that was inconsistent with a real angel of God, such as refusing to go into a house with a dog or picture, (Sahih Bukhari 4.450) didn’t understand genetics, (Sahih Bukhari 4.546), was unable to heal Muhammad when he prayed for him, and was responsible for the massacre of a Jewish tribe of Bani Qurayza. (Sahih Bukhari 5.448) (13) 

Finally, as compared to biblical prophets – specifically those who the Apostle Peter describes – Muhammad’s revelations were closer to those of a spiritist or channeler. (22) John Gilchrist, a South African Christian author and well-known authority on Islam compares Muhammad’s revelations to the epileptic boy in Matthew 17, Mark 9, and Luke 9 who was demon possessed. (22) His conclusion was that it’s possible that Muhammad could’ve been such a case, with occultic influences causing epilepsy-like symptoms without amnesia, which has been recorded as happening to oriental ecstatics and mystics by missionaries and others. (22) Even more damning that Muhammad was a false prophet who may have been demon possessed is that not only did Muhammad die of poisoning at the hands of a Jewish woman after the conquest of Khaybar, (11, 13) but all of his male children died when they were very young. (13) Why this is important is because in Jeremiah 23:15, 34, God says that He will punish false prophets via “bitter food” and “poisoned water,” and that He would “punish that man and his household.” (13)  

Overall, while it’s almost impossible to give a concrete diagnosis of the mental, spiritual, or neurological state of Jesus or Muhammad, from what we know of their lives, we can see if there is at least the potential that they suffered from some sort of disorder or spiritual oppression. While Jesus Christ has been repeatedly accused of having epilepsy, various personality disorders, or being demon possessed, He has repeatedly proved Himself to be completely sane. He denied being possessed, never acted as one demon possessed, and showed no symptoms of epilepsy or any personality disorders.  Muhammad, however, when faced with similar accusations, is unable to give a satisfying rebuttal. From the accounts given by the hadiths and various Islamic scholars, the belief that Muhammad had epilepsy, a personality disorder, or was demonically possessed finds ground. There are strange accounts that support each theory, leading some to even speculate that he had a combination of all three. Either way, it’s clear that while Jesus was perfectly sane and was who He said He was, Muhammad was most likely a madman. 

Until next time,

M.J.

Apologetics: Flippin’ Fatwa Friday – A Comparison of Claims About the Insanity of Jesus and the Insanity of Muhammad. (Part 3)

Over the last two Flippin’ Fatwa Friday posts, I’ve discussed the possibility that Muhammad and Jesus were either epileptic or insane. Jesus repeatedly proved Himself to be of sound mind and didn’t show any sign of epilepsy. Muhammad didn’t pass so cleanly, with the theory that he had epilepsy or a personality disorder still standing. However, if neither man were epileptic or insane, this leaves what’s possibly the oldest and most serious accusation against either of them: demon possession. 

Demonic possession manifests itself in different ways and can look like psychological dysfunction. (15) According to the instances of demon possession recorded in the Bible, demon possessed people can’t control themselves, exhibit new personalities and abilities, (Matt 8:29, 9:33, 12:22, Mark 1:23-24) speak in a different voice or make them mute, (Mark 5:9, Luke 11:14) have supernatural knowledge (Acts 16:16-18), and tend to be suicidal. (Matthew 17:14-21, Mark 9:14-29, Luke 9:37-43, 17:6) (3, 15)  

In the Bible, Jesus was accused of being demon possessed numerous times. In Luke 11:15, after Jesus had driven out a demon that made a person mute, some of the members of the crowd said, “By Beelzebul, the prince of demons, he is driving out demons.” Similar accusations are found in Matthew 12:24, Mark 3:21-22, John 7:20, 8:48, 8:52, and 10:20. (3) 

 However, Jesus’ responses consistently disproved these claims. (Matthew 12:22-32, Mark 2:12, 3:22-30, 5:1-20, Luke 4:33-37, 11:14-23, and John 10:21) (3) At one point, he said, “Every kingdom divided against itself is ruined. And every city or household divided against itself will not last. If Satan forces Satan out, he is divided against himself. How, then, can his kingdom last? If I force demons out of people with the help of Beelzebul, who helps your followers force them out? That’s why they will be your judges. But if I force demons out with the help of God’s Spirit, then the kingdom of God has come to you.” (Matthew 12:25-28) (3) 

In Muhammad’s case, he cannot effectively fend off this accusation. In fact, the charge that he was possessed has perhaps the best evidence to support it. Throughout Muhammad’s life, he experienced periods of great spiritual oppression or delusion. (22) Ibn Saad records that during Muhammad’s childhood, Halima would see a cloud shadowing him during severe heat. (10) This so greatly scared her that it prompted her to send him back to Aaminah. (7, 10) In Guillaume’s translation of Ibn Ishaw, page 72: “His [Muhammad’s friends] father said to me, ‘I am afraid that this child has had a stroke, so take him back to his family before the result appears. … She [Muhammad’s mother] asked me what happened and gave me no peace until I told her. When she asked if I feared a demon had possessed him, I replied that I did.” (paragraph 5) (13) 

Various accounts of Muhammad’s first revelation are also damning. According to Karen Armstrong, ““Muhammad was torn from his sleep in his mountain cave and felt himself overwhelmed by a devastating divine presence. Later he explained this ineffable experience by saying that an angel had enveloped him in a terrifying embrace so that it felt as though the breath was being forced from his body.” (paragraph 5, sentence 1-2) (22) Sahih Muslim 160a writes, ““Then the Prophet returned therewith, his heart was trembling, and he went to Khadija and said: Wrap me up, wrap me up! So, they wrapped him till the fear had left him. He then said to Khadija: O Khadija! What has happened to me? And he informed her of the happening, saying: I fear for myself.” (1) Sahih Bukhari 4951 also says, “Then Allah’s Messenger returned with that experience; and the muscles between his neck and shoulders were trembling till he came upon Khadija (his wife) and said, ‘Cover me!’ They covered him, and when the state of fear was over, he said to Khadija, ‘O Khadija! What is wrong with me? I was afraid that something bad might happen to me.” (1)  

Ibn Ishaq and many of Muhammad’s contemporaries also agreed that he believed himself to be possessed and became suicidal afterwards. (22)  Islamic scholar al-Tabari, records that when the revelations ceased for a period of six months to three years, Muhammad became depressed and repeatedly attempted to jump off cliffs and mountain crags. (13) Guillaume’s The Life of Muhammad, page 106 contains Tabari’s record of what Muhammad said: “Now none of God’s creatures was more hateful to me than an (ecstatic) poet or a man possessed: I could not even look at them. I thought, Woe is me poet or possessed – Never shall Quraysh say this of me! I will go to the top of the mountain and throw myself down that I may kill myself and gain rest.” (Paragraph 13-paragraph 14, sentence 1-5) (13)  

When compared to the accounts of angelic encounters in the Bible, Muhammad’s initial encounter with Gabriel sounds more akin to the cases of demon possession found in the Bible. Whenever people in the Bible meet an angel, the angel always comforts them with the phrase, “Do not be afraid.” (Gen 15:1, 26:24, 46: 3; Dan 8:15-29, 10:12, 19; Matt 28:5, 10; Luke 1:13, 26-31, 2:10; Rev. 1:17) (3, 22) Then, after the visit from the angel or God Himself, while the people are understandably shaken and filled with reverent fear, they never experienced depression, much less suicidality. (13) In fact, many who were visited by God in the Bible were blessed with the opportunity to fellowship with Him. (Gen 3-4, 6, 12-18, Exodus 3-34, Isaiah 6, Luke 2, Acts 9) (13) With Muhammad’s encounter with Gabriel, none of that is present. 

Interestingly, the accusations from Muhammad’s contemporaries that he was possessed aren’t just found in the hadiths. Record of these accusations can also be found in the Quran in verses and passages such as surah 15:6, (2) 44:14, and 37:36, (2, 22), 81:22-25, 69:41-42. (2, 13) The reason for these accusations, according to Tabari, could be rooted in a superstition from the pre-Islamic Arabs who believed in the demon of poetry. (13) The pre-Islamic Arabs believed that great poets were directly inspired by demons, which, combined with the fact that early Quranic revelations were poetic in nature, may explain why Muhammad’s contemporaries and Muhammad himself believed him to be demon possessed. (13, 22) So great was this belief that Muhammad was possessed that there are numerous verses dedicated to rebutting these claims, such as surah 7:184, 23:70, 34:36 52:29, 68:2, 81:22. (2) Further evidence that Muhammad had strange experiences with spiritual entities is found in Sahih Bukhari 3421, which records that he was attacked by jinn during prayer. (1) 

Other accounts that support the claim that Muhammad was possessed is the infamous story of the Satanic Verses, which make up surah 53:19-23. (2, 11) According to accounts from Ibn Sa’d and al-Tabari in The Life of Muhammad, when Muhammad’s following was still small in Mecca, he revealed verses that pleased the Meccan leaders because it declared the existence of and endorsed the worship of three goddesses who were worshipped there. (11) When later questioned about it, Muhammad retracted it, (11) and claimed that Satan put those verses in his mouth. (13)  

Additionally, various hadiths (i.e. Sahih Bukhari 4.490, 7.660, 7.661, 7.658, 8.89, 8.400) record an incident in which Muhammad was bewitched for a year, believing that he was having sexual relations with his wives when he wasn’t (13, 22) and was also referenced by Ibn Hisham in The Life of Muhammad. (13) Aisha narrates in Sahih Bukhari 3175, “Once the Prophet was bewitched so that he began to imagine that he had done a thing which in fact he had not done.” (1) Sahih Bukhari 6391, also records this and said, “[…] Allah’s Messenger was affected by magic, so much that he used to think that he had done something which in fact, he did not do, and he invoke his Lord (for a remedy). Then (one day) he said, ‘O Aisha! Do you know that Allah has advised me as to the problem I consulted him about?’ Aisha said, ‘O Allah’s Messenger! What’s that?’ He said, ‘Two mean came to me and one of them sat at my head and the other at my feet, and one of them asked his companion, ‘What is wrong with this man?’ The later replied, ‘He is under the effect of magic.’” (1)  It continues, saying, “Allah’s Messenger went to that well and returned to Aisha, saying, ‘By Allah, the water (of the well) was as red as the infusion of Hinna, and the date-palm trees look like the heads of devils.’” (1)  

People’s reaction to Gabriel were also telling, with as non-Muslims called Gabriel “Satan.” (Sahih Bukhari 2.225) (13) Aisha also couldn’t see Gabriel, (Sahih Bukhari 4.440) Muslims and non-Muslims thought Gabriel was a man named Dihya al-Kalbi (Sahih Bukhari 4.827), and Khadija couldn’t see him. (Life of Muhammad) (13) Gabriel also exhibited behavior that was inconsistent with a real angel of God, such as refusing to go into a house with a dog or picture, (Sahih Bukhari 4.450) didn’t understand genetics, (Sahih Bukhari 4.546), was unable to heal Muhammad when he prayed for him, and was responsible for the massacre of a Jewish tribe of Bani Qurayza. (Sahih Bukhari 5.448) (13) 

Finally, as compared to biblical prophets – specifically those who the Apostle Peter describes – Muhammad’s revelations were closer to those of a spiritist or channeler. (22) John Gilchrist, a South African Christian author and well-known authority on Islam compares Muhammad’s revelations to the epileptic boy in Matthew 17, Mark 9, and Luke 9 who was demon possessed. (22) His conclusion was that it’s possible that Muhammad could’ve been such a case, with occultic influences causing epilepsy-like symptoms without amnesia, which has been recorded as happening to oriental ecstatics and mystics by missionaries and others. (22) Even more damning that Muhammad was a false prophet who may have been demon possessed is that not only did Muhammad die of poisoning at the hands of a Jewish woman after the conquest of Khaybar, (11, 13) but all of his male children died when they were very young. (13) Why this is important is because in Jeremiah 23:15, 34, God says that He will punish false prophets via “bitter food” and “poisoned water,” and that He would “punish that man and his household.” (13)  

Overall, while it’s almost impossible to give a concrete diagnosis of the mental, spiritual, or neurological state of Jesus or Muhammad, from what we know of their lives, we can see if there is at least the potential that they suffered from some sort of disorder or spiritual oppression. While Jesus Christ has been repeatedly accused of having epilepsy, various personality disorders, or being demon possessed, He has repeatedly proved Himself to be completely sane. He denied being possessed, never acted as one demon possessed, and showed no symptoms of epilepsy or any personality disorders.  Muhammad, however, when faced with similar accusations, is unable to give a satisfying rebuttal. From the accounts given by the hadiths and various Islamic scholars, the belief that Muhammad had epilepsy, a personality disorder, or was demonically possessed finds ground. There are strange accounts that support each theory, leading some to even speculate that he had a combination of all three. Either way, it’s clear that while Jesus was perfectly sane and was who He said He was, Muhammad was most likely a madman. 

Until next time,

M.J.

Apologetics: Flippin’ Fatwa Friday – A Comparison of Claims About the Insanity of Jesus and the Insanity of Muhammad. (Part 3)

Over the last two Flippin’ Fatwa Friday posts, I’ve discussed the possibility that Muhammad and Jesus were either epileptic or insane. Jesus repeatedly proved Himself to be of sound mind and didn’t show any sign of epilepsy. Muhammad didn’t pass so cleanly, with the theory that he had epilepsy or a personality disorder still standing. However, if neither man were epileptic or insane, this leaves what’s possibly the oldest and most serious accusation against either of them: demon possession. 

Demonic possession manifests itself in different ways and can look like psychological dysfunction. (15) According to the instances of demon possession recorded in the Bible, demon possessed people can’t control themselves, exhibit new personalities and abilities, (Matt 8:29, 9:33, 12:22, Mark 1:23-24) speak in a different voice or make them mute, (Mark 5:9, Luke 11:14) have supernatural knowledge (Acts 16:16-18), and tend to be suicidal. (Matthew 17:14-21, Mark 9:14-29, Luke 9:37-43, 17:6) (3, 15)  

In the Bible, Jesus was accused of being demon possessed numerous times. In Luke 11:15, after Jesus had driven out a demon that made a person mute, some of the members of the crowd said, “By Beelzebul, the prince of demons, he is driving out demons.” Similar accusations are found in Matthew 12:24, Mark 3:21-22, John 7:20, 8:48, 8:52, and 10:20. (3) 

 However, Jesus’ responses consistently disproved these claims. (Matthew 12:22-32, Mark 2:12, 3:22-30, 5:1-20, Luke 4:33-37, 11:14-23, and John 10:21) (3) At one point, he said, “Every kingdom divided against itself is ruined. And every city or household divided against itself will not last. If Satan forces Satan out, he is divided against himself. How, then, can his kingdom last? If I force demons out of people with the help of Beelzebul, who helps your followers force them out? That’s why they will be your judges. But if I force demons out with the help of God’s Spirit, then the kingdom of God has come to you.” (Matthew 12:25-28) (3) 

In Muhammad’s case, he cannot effectively fend off this accusation. In fact, the charge that he was possessed has perhaps the best evidence to support it. Throughout Muhammad’s life, he experienced periods of great spiritual oppression or delusion. (22) Ibn Saad records that during Muhammad’s childhood, Halima would see a cloud shadowing him during severe heat. (10) This so greatly scared her that it prompted her to send him back to Aaminah. (7, 10) In Guillaume’s translation of Ibn Ishaw, page 72: “His [Muhammad’s friends] father said to me, ‘I am afraid that this child has had a stroke, so take him back to his family before the result appears. … She [Muhammad’s mother] asked me what happened and gave me no peace until I told her. When she asked if I feared a demon had possessed him, I replied that I did.” (paragraph 5) (13) 

Various accounts of Muhammad’s first revelation are also damning. According to Karen Armstrong, ““Muhammad was torn from his sleep in his mountain cave and felt himself overwhelmed by a devastating divine presence. Later he explained this ineffable experience by saying that an angel had enveloped him in a terrifying embrace so that it felt as though the breath was being forced from his body.” (paragraph 5, sentence 1-2) (22) Sahih Muslim 160a writes, ““Then the Prophet returned therewith, his heart was trembling, and he went to Khadija and said: Wrap me up, wrap me up! So, they wrapped him till the fear had left him. He then said to Khadija: O Khadija! What has happened to me? And he informed her of the happening, saying: I fear for myself.” (1) Sahih Bukhari 4951 also says, “Then Allah’s Messenger returned with that experience; and the muscles between his neck and shoulders were trembling till he came upon Khadija (his wife) and said, ‘Cover me!’ They covered him, and when the state of fear was over, he said to Khadija, ‘O Khadija! What is wrong with me? I was afraid that something bad might happen to me.” (1)  

Ibn Ishaq and many of Muhammad’s contemporaries also agreed that he believed himself to be possessed and became suicidal afterwards. (22)  Islamic scholar al-Tabari, records that when the revelations ceased for a period of six months to three years, Muhammad became depressed and repeatedly attempted to jump off cliffs and mountain crags. (13) Guillaume’s The Life of Muhammad, page 106 contains Tabari’s record of what Muhammad said: “Now none of God’s creatures was more hateful to me than an (ecstatic) poet or a man possessed: I could not even look at them. I thought, Woe is me poet or possessed – Never shall Quraysh say this of me! I will go to the top of the mountain and throw myself down that I may kill myself and gain rest.” (Paragraph 13-paragraph 14, sentence 1-5) (13)  

When compared to the accounts of angelic encounters in the Bible, Muhammad’s initial encounter with Gabriel sounds more akin to the cases of demon possession found in the Bible. Whenever people in the Bible meet an angel, the angel always comforts them with the phrase, “Do not be afraid.” (Gen 15:1, 26:24, 46: 3; Dan 8:15-29, 10:12, 19; Matt 28:5, 10; Luke 1:13, 26-31, 2:10; Rev. 1:17) (3, 22) Then, after the visit from the angel or God Himself, while the people are understandably shaken and filled with reverent fear, they never experienced depression, much less suicidality. (13) In fact, many who were visited by God in the Bible were blessed with the opportunity to fellowship with Him. (Gen 3-4, 6, 12-18, Exodus 3-34, Isaiah 6, Luke 2, Acts 9) (13) With Muhammad’s encounter with Gabriel, none of that is present. 

Interestingly, the accusations from Muhammad’s contemporaries that he was possessed aren’t just found in the hadiths. Record of these accusations can also be found in the Quran in verses and passages such as surah 15:6, (2) 44:14, and 37:36, (2, 22), 81:22-25, 69:41-42. (2, 13) The reason for these accusations, according to Tabari, could be rooted in a superstition from the pre-Islamic Arabs who believed in the demon of poetry. (13) The pre-Islamic Arabs believed that great poets were directly inspired by demons, which, combined with the fact that early Quranic revelations were poetic in nature, may explain why Muhammad’s contemporaries and Muhammad himself believed him to be demon possessed. (13, 22) So great was this belief that Muhammad was possessed that there are numerous verses dedicated to rebutting these claims, such as surah 7:184, 23:70, 34:36 52:29, 68:2, 81:22. (2) Further evidence that Muhammad had strange experiences with spiritual entities is found in Sahih Bukhari 3421, which records that he was attacked by jinn during prayer. (1) 

Other accounts that support the claim that Muhammad was possessed is the infamous story of the Satanic Verses, which make up surah 53:19-23. (2, 11) According to accounts from Ibn Sa’d and al-Tabari in The Life of Muhammad, when Muhammad’s following was still small in Mecca, he revealed verses that pleased the Meccan leaders because it declared the existence of and endorsed the worship of three goddesses who were worshipped there. (11) When later questioned about it, Muhammad retracted it, (11) and claimed that Satan put those verses in his mouth. (13)  

Additionally, various hadiths (i.e. Sahih Bukhari 4.490, 7.660, 7.661, 7.658, 8.89, 8.400) record an incident in which Muhammad was bewitched for a year, believing that he was having sexual relations with his wives when he wasn’t (13, 22) and was also referenced by Ibn Hisham in The Life of Muhammad. (13) Aisha narrates in Sahih Bukhari 3175, “Once the Prophet was bewitched so that he began to imagine that he had done a thing which in fact he had not done.” (1) Sahih Bukhari 6391, also records this and said, “[…] Allah’s Messenger was affected by magic, so much that he used to think that he had done something which in fact, he did not do, and he invoke his Lord (for a remedy). Then (one day) he said, ‘O Aisha! Do you know that Allah has advised me as to the problem I consulted him about?’ Aisha said, ‘O Allah’s Messenger! What’s that?’ He said, ‘Two mean came to me and one of them sat at my head and the other at my feet, and one of them asked his companion, ‘What is wrong with this man?’ The later replied, ‘He is under the effect of magic.’” (1)  It continues, saying, “Allah’s Messenger went to that well and returned to Aisha, saying, ‘By Allah, the water (of the well) was as red as the infusion of Hinna, and the date-palm trees look like the heads of devils.’” (1)  

People’s reaction to Gabriel were also telling, with as non-Muslims called Gabriel “Satan.” (Sahih Bukhari 2.225) (13) Aisha also couldn’t see Gabriel, (Sahih Bukhari 4.440) Muslims and non-Muslims thought Gabriel was a man named Dihya al-Kalbi (Sahih Bukhari 4.827), and Khadija couldn’t see him. (Life of Muhammad) (13) Gabriel also exhibited behavior that was inconsistent with a real angel of God, such as refusing to go into a house with a dog or picture, (Sahih Bukhari 4.450) didn’t understand genetics, (Sahih Bukhari 4.546), was unable to heal Muhammad when he prayed for him, and was responsible for the massacre of a Jewish tribe of Bani Qurayza. (Sahih Bukhari 5.448) (13) 

Finally, as compared to biblical prophets – specifically those who the Apostle Peter describes – Muhammad’s revelations were closer to those of a spiritist or channeler. (22) John Gilchrist, a South African Christian author and well-known authority on Islam compares Muhammad’s revelations to the epileptic boy in Matthew 17, Mark 9, and Luke 9 who was demon possessed. (22) His conclusion was that it’s possible that Muhammad could’ve been such a case, with occultic influences causing epilepsy-like symptoms without amnesia, which has been recorded as happening to oriental ecstatics and mystics by missionaries and others. (22) Even more damning that Muhammad was a false prophet who may have been demon possessed is that not only did Muhammad die of poisoning at the hands of a Jewish woman after the conquest of Khaybar, (11, 13) but all of his male children died when they were very young. (13) Why this is important is because in Jeremiah 23:15, 34, God says that He will punish false prophets via “bitter food” and “poisoned water,” and that He would “punish that man and his household.” (13)  

Overall, while it’s almost impossible to give a concrete diagnosis of the mental, spiritual, or neurological state of Jesus or Muhammad, from what we know of their lives, we can see if there is at least the potential that they suffered from some sort of disorder or spiritual oppression. While Jesus Christ has been repeatedly accused of having epilepsy, various personality disorders, or being demon possessed, He has repeatedly proved Himself to be completely sane. He denied being possessed, never acted as one demon possessed, and showed no symptoms of epilepsy or any personality disorders.  Muhammad, however, when faced with similar accusations, is unable to give a satisfying rebuttal. From the accounts given by the hadiths and various Islamic scholars, the belief that Muhammad had epilepsy, a personality disorder, or was demonically possessed finds ground. There are strange accounts that support each theory, leading some to even speculate that he had a combination of all three. Either way, it’s clear that while Jesus was perfectly sane and was who He said He was, Muhammad was most likely a madman. 

Until next time,

M.J.

Apologetics: Flippin’ Fatwa Friday – A Comparison of Claims About the Insanity of Jesus and the Insanity of Muhammad. (Part 3)

Over the last two Flippin’ Fatwa Friday posts, I’ve discussed the possibility that Muhammad and Jesus were either epileptic or insane. Jesus repeatedly proved Himself to be of sound mind and didn’t show any sign of epilepsy. Muhammad didn’t pass so cleanly, with the theory that he had epilepsy or a personality disorder still standing. However, if neither man were epileptic or insane, this leaves what’s possibly the oldest and most serious accusation against either of them: demon possession. 

Demonic possession manifests itself in different ways and can look like psychological dysfunction. (15) According to the instances of demon possession recorded in the Bible, demon possessed people can’t control themselves, exhibit new personalities and abilities, (Matt 8:29, 9:33, 12:22, Mark 1:23-24) speak in a different voice or make them mute, (Mark 5:9, Luke 11:14) have supernatural knowledge (Acts 16:16-18), and tend to be suicidal. (Matthew 17:14-21, Mark 9:14-29, Luke 9:37-43, 17:6) (3, 15)  

In the Bible, Jesus was accused of being demon possessed numerous times. In Luke 11:15, after Jesus had driven out a demon that made a person mute, some of the members of the crowd said, “By Beelzebul, the prince of demons, he is driving out demons.” Similar accusations are found in Matthew 12:24, Mark 3:21-22, John 7:20, 8:48, 8:52, and 10:20. (3) 

 However, Jesus’ responses consistently disproved these claims. (Matthew 12:22-32, Mark 2:12, 3:22-30, 5:1-20, Luke 4:33-37, 11:14-23, and John 10:21) (3) At one point, he said, “Every kingdom divided against itself is ruined. And every city or household divided against itself will not last. If Satan forces Satan out, he is divided against himself. How, then, can his kingdom last? If I force demons out of people with the help of Beelzebul, who helps your followers force them out? That’s why they will be your judges. But if I force demons out with the help of God’s Spirit, then the kingdom of God has come to you.” (Matthew 12:25-28) (3) 

In Muhammad’s case, he cannot effectively fend off this accusation. In fact, the charge that he was possessed has perhaps the best evidence to support it. Throughout Muhammad’s life, he experienced periods of great spiritual oppression or delusion. (22) Ibn Saad records that during Muhammad’s childhood, Halima would see a cloud shadowing him during severe heat. (10) This so greatly scared her that it prompted her to send him back to Aaminah. (7, 10) In Guillaume’s translation of Ibn Ishaw, page 72: “His [Muhammad’s friends] father said to me, ‘I am afraid that this child has had a stroke, so take him back to his family before the result appears. … She [Muhammad’s mother] asked me what happened and gave me no peace until I told her. When she asked if I feared a demon had possessed him, I replied that I did.” (paragraph 5) (13) 

Various accounts of Muhammad’s first revelation are also damning. According to Karen Armstrong, ““Muhammad was torn from his sleep in his mountain cave and felt himself overwhelmed by a devastating divine presence. Later he explained this ineffable experience by saying that an angel had enveloped him in a terrifying embrace so that it felt as though the breath was being forced from his body.” (paragraph 5, sentence 1-2) (22) Sahih Muslim 160a writes, ““Then the Prophet returned therewith, his heart was trembling, and he went to Khadija and said: Wrap me up, wrap me up! So, they wrapped him till the fear had left him. He then said to Khadija: O Khadija! What has happened to me? And he informed her of the happening, saying: I fear for myself.” (1) Sahih Bukhari 4951 also says, “Then Allah’s Messenger returned with that experience; and the muscles between his neck and shoulders were trembling till he came upon Khadija (his wife) and said, ‘Cover me!’ They covered him, and when the state of fear was over, he said to Khadija, ‘O Khadija! What is wrong with me? I was afraid that something bad might happen to me.” (1)  

Ibn Ishaq and many of Muhammad’s contemporaries also agreed that he believed himself to be possessed and became suicidal afterwards. (22)  Islamic scholar al-Tabari, records that when the revelations ceased for a period of six months to three years, Muhammad became depressed and repeatedly attempted to jump off cliffs and mountain crags. (13) Guillaume’s The Life of Muhammad, page 106 contains Tabari’s record of what Muhammad said: “Now none of God’s creatures was more hateful to me than an (ecstatic) poet or a man possessed: I could not even look at them. I thought, Woe is me poet or possessed – Never shall Quraysh say this of me! I will go to the top of the mountain and throw myself down that I may kill myself and gain rest.” (Paragraph 13-paragraph 14, sentence 1-5) (13)  

When compared to the accounts of angelic encounters in the Bible, Muhammad’s initial encounter with Gabriel sounds more akin to the cases of demon possession found in the Bible. Whenever people in the Bible meet an angel, the angel always comforts them with the phrase, “Do not be afraid.” (Gen 15:1, 26:24, 46: 3; Dan 8:15-29, 10:12, 19; Matt 28:5, 10; Luke 1:13, 26-31, 2:10; Rev. 1:17) (3, 22) Then, after the visit from the angel or God Himself, while the people are understandably shaken and filled with reverent fear, they never experienced depression, much less suicidality. (13) In fact, many who were visited by God in the Bible were blessed with the opportunity to fellowship with Him. (Gen 3-4, 6, 12-18, Exodus 3-34, Isaiah 6, Luke 2, Acts 9) (13) With Muhammad’s encounter with Gabriel, none of that is present. 

Interestingly, the accusations from Muhammad’s contemporaries that he was possessed aren’t just found in the hadiths. Record of these accusations can also be found in the Quran in verses and passages such as surah 15:6, (2) 44:14, and 37:36, (2, 22), 81:22-25, 69:41-42. (2, 13) The reason for these accusations, according to Tabari, could be rooted in a superstition from the pre-Islamic Arabs who believed in the demon of poetry. (13) The pre-Islamic Arabs believed that great poets were directly inspired by demons, which, combined with the fact that early Quranic revelations were poetic in nature, may explain why Muhammad’s contemporaries and Muhammad himself believed him to be demon possessed. (13, 22) So great was this belief that Muhammad was possessed that there are numerous verses dedicated to rebutting these claims, such as surah 7:184, 23:70, 34:36 52:29, 68:2, 81:22. (2) Further evidence that Muhammad had strange experiences with spiritual entities is found in Sahih Bukhari 3421, which records that he was attacked by jinn during prayer. (1) 

Other accounts that support the claim that Muhammad was possessed is the infamous story of the Satanic Verses, which make up surah 53:19-23. (2, 11) According to accounts from Ibn Sa’d and al-Tabari in The Life of Muhammad, when Muhammad’s following was still small in Mecca, he revealed verses that pleased the Meccan leaders because it declared the existence of and endorsed the worship of three goddesses who were worshipped there. (11) When later questioned about it, Muhammad retracted it, (11) and claimed that Satan put those verses in his mouth. (13)  

Additionally, various hadiths (i.e. Sahih Bukhari 4.490, 7.660, 7.661, 7.658, 8.89, 8.400) record an incident in which Muhammad was bewitched for a year, believing that he was having sexual relations with his wives when he wasn’t (13, 22) and was also referenced by Ibn Hisham in The Life of Muhammad. (13) Aisha narrates in Sahih Bukhari 3175, “Once the Prophet was bewitched so that he began to imagine that he had done a thing which in fact he had not done.” (1) Sahih Bukhari 6391, also records this and said, “[…] Allah’s Messenger was affected by magic, so much that he used to think that he had done something which in fact, he did not do, and he invoke his Lord (for a remedy). Then (one day) he said, ‘O Aisha! Do you know that Allah has advised me as to the problem I consulted him about?’ Aisha said, ‘O Allah’s Messenger! What’s that?’ He said, ‘Two mean came to me and one of them sat at my head and the other at my feet, and one of them asked his companion, ‘What is wrong with this man?’ The later replied, ‘He is under the effect of magic.’” (1)  It continues, saying, “Allah’s Messenger went to that well and returned to Aisha, saying, ‘By Allah, the water (of the well) was as red as the infusion of Hinna, and the date-palm trees look like the heads of devils.’” (1)  

People’s reaction to Gabriel were also telling, with as non-Muslims called Gabriel “Satan.” (Sahih Bukhari 2.225) (13) Aisha also couldn’t see Gabriel, (Sahih Bukhari 4.440) Muslims and non-Muslims thought Gabriel was a man named Dihya al-Kalbi (Sahih Bukhari 4.827), and Khadija couldn’t see him. (Life of Muhammad) (13) Gabriel also exhibited behavior that was inconsistent with a real angel of God, such as refusing to go into a house with a dog or picture, (Sahih Bukhari 4.450) didn’t understand genetics, (Sahih Bukhari 4.546), was unable to heal Muhammad when he prayed for him, and was responsible for the massacre of a Jewish tribe of Bani Qurayza. (Sahih Bukhari 5.448) (13) 

Finally, as compared to biblical prophets – specifically those who the Apostle Peter describes – Muhammad’s revelations were closer to those of a spiritist or channeler. (22) John Gilchrist, a South African Christian author and well-known authority on Islam compares Muhammad’s revelations to the epileptic boy in Matthew 17, Mark 9, and Luke 9 who was demon possessed. (22) His conclusion was that it’s possible that Muhammad could’ve been such a case, with occultic influences causing epilepsy-like symptoms without amnesia, which has been recorded as happening to oriental ecstatics and mystics by missionaries and others. (22) Even more damning that Muhammad was a false prophet who may have been demon possessed is that not only did Muhammad die of poisoning at the hands of a Jewish woman after the conquest of Khaybar, (11, 13) but all of his male children died when they were very young. (13) Why this is important is because in Jeremiah 23:15, 34, God says that He will punish false prophets via “bitter food” and “poisoned water,” and that He would “punish that man and his household.” (13)  

Overall, while it’s almost impossible to give a concrete diagnosis of the mental, spiritual, or neurological state of Jesus or Muhammad, from what we know of their lives, we can see if there is at least the potential that they suffered from some sort of disorder or spiritual oppression. While Jesus Christ has been repeatedly accused of having epilepsy, various personality disorders, or being demon possessed, He has repeatedly proved Himself to be completely sane. He denied being possessed, never acted as one demon possessed, and showed no symptoms of epilepsy or any personality disorders.  Muhammad, however, when faced with similar accusations, is unable to give a satisfying rebuttal. From the accounts given by the hadiths and various Islamic scholars, the belief that Muhammad had epilepsy, a personality disorder, or was demonically possessed finds ground. There are strange accounts that support each theory, leading some to even speculate that he had a combination of all three. Either way, it’s clear that while Jesus was perfectly sane and was who He said He was, Muhammad was most likely a madman. 

Until next time,

M.J.

What is the actual message of Islam?

Worship the Creator, not the creation.

Islam calls humanity away from praying to the universe, to nature, or to statues. It also strictly rejects the worship of human beings.
We do not pray to the greatest Prophets whether that is Jesus, Moses, or even Muhammad (peace be upon them all). They were chosen messengers, not the Divine.

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Apologetics: Flippin’ Fatwa Friday – A Comparison of Claims About the Insanity of Jesus and the Insanity of Muhammad. (Part 2)

While epilepsy is a plausible explanation for Muhammad’s behavior, and an impossible one for Jesus’, another theory must be considered. The existence of personality disorders in both men has been suggested and it’s also worthwhile to examine the symptoms of them to see if they fit. Personality disorders exist when the patient’s way of thinking, perceiving, reacting, and relating to others becomes so pronounced, rigid, and maladaptive that they negatively affect work or interpersonal functioning. (9) Childhood trauma, verbal abuse, and cultural factors have also been linked to the development of personality disorders. (8) They can be identified by the lack of a clear, stable image of self, unrealistically high or low self-esteem, and an unawareness of how their thoughts or actions are problematic. (8) Patients may exhibit bad beliefs or actions, lack empathy or respect, and be emotionally detached or overly needy attention or care. (8) Their behavior may be inconsistent, frustrating, or confusing to others, and they may have issues understanding realistic and acceptable ways to treat others. (8) With the exception of anti-social personality disorder (which can appear as early as 11), personality disorders are identifiable by 18. (8) Left untreated, their disorders may result in poor relationships, occupational issues and impaired social functioning. (8) The ten different types of personality disorders are categorized by the DSM-5 into three main categories or “clusters.” (8) 

The first category is known as Cluster A. (8) Cluster A personality disorders involve unusual or eccentric thinking or behavior. (8) Paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal personality disorders fall into this category. (8) Paranoid personality disorder gives people a relentless, unmerited suspicion or distrust of others, with the belief that others are trying to demean, harm, or threaten them. (8) Schizoid personality disorder is less intense and is marked by a consistent pattern of detachment from or a general disinterest in personal relationships. (8) Patients with schizoid personality disorder usually have a limited range of emotions when with others. (8) Patients with schizotypal personality disorder experience a consistent pattern of discomfort and have a limited need for close relationships. Any relationships they have may be hindered by their distorted view of reality, superstitions, or strange behaviors. (8)  

Meanwhile, Cluster B personality disorders involve dramatic or erratic and impulsive behavior and intense, unstable emotions. (8) The specific disorders that fall into Cluster B are antisocial, borderline, narcissistic, and histrionic personality disorders. (8) 

Starting with the symptoms of antisocial personality disorder (ASPD), antisocial personality disorder is displayed by a lack of respect towards others and a rejection of social norms and rules. (8) people with ASPD may break the law, cause harm to others, and refuse to take responsibility or display regard for the negative consequences of their actions. (8) They may be deceitful, exploitative, and reckless, all for personal profit or pleasure with no remorse, usually justifying or rationalizing their behavior in some way. (8) They may steal, harass others, manipulate, con, or destroy property. (9) They do not think about the consequences for or safety of themselves or others, and may suddenly change jobs, homes, or relationships, consume excessive amounts of alcohol or take illicit drugs, are socially and financially irresponsible, irritable, physically aggressive, abusive towards their spouse or partner, or polyamorous. (9) They’re extremely opinionated, self-assured, and arrogant, but can act charming, voluble, and verbally facile to get what they want. (9) ASPD can also be comorbid with impulse control, mood, anxiety, gambling, and bipolar disorder, as well as ADHD. (9) 

The cause of anti-social personality disorder is unknown, though scientists believe that genetic and environmental influences may contribute to the development of ASPD. (9) It’s more often found among 1st degree relatives of patients who also have it than in the general population. (9) Children who have been abused or neglected, or who had parents with inconsistent disciplining or parenting styles, are at increased risk of developing it. (9) 

To be diagnosed with ASPD, one must have a persistent disregard for the rights of others and the law, deceitfulness indicated by repeated lying, use of aliases, and conning for personal gain. (9) There must also be impulsivity, irritability and aggression (constantly getting into physical fights and assaulting others), recklessly disregarding the safety of self or others, constant irresponsibility, and a lack of remorse. (9) These symptoms must be present before the patient is 15 years old. (9) 

Meanwhile, borderline disorder is marked with difficulty regulating emotions, low self-esteem, mood swings, impulsivity, and relationship difficulties. (8) Symptoms of borderline disorder can also overlap with those presented in histrionic or narcissistic personality disorder and is commonly misdiagnosed as bipolar disorder. (9) Patients with borderline personality disorder often feel furious or panicky when they feel abandoned, even if it’s for something small (like being slightly late.) (9) They may change their view of a person abruptly after a period of idealization, suddenly demeaning the other person. (9) Another trait of borderline personality disorder is that they have difficulty controlling their anger, becoming disproportionately angry, for which they will feel ashamed. (9) They may often self-sabotage, dramatically change their self-image, feel empty inside, self-mutilate or attempt suicide, and may have dissociative episodes, paranoid thoughts, or psychotic symptoms (such as hallucinations.) (9) The cause of this is most linked to childhood separation from caregivers, the death of a parent, and physical or sexual abuse. (9) 

Histrionic personality disorder can be identified if the patient has intense, unstable emotions, a distorted self-image, dramatic, inappropriate, and attention-seeking behaviors, and self-esteem that’s dependent upon the approval of others. (8) They may use their physical appearance and act inappropriately in seductive or provocative ways. (8) Their emotions are persistently excessive, and rapidly shifting or shallow. (9) They are uncomfortable when they’re not the center of attention, are highly suggestible, theatrical and self-dramatizing, and interpret relationships as more intimate than they are. (9) 

Narcissistic personality disorder is like histrionic personality disorder and involves a consistent pattern of perceived superiority or grandiosity, need for praise or admiration, and a lack of empathy. (8) Narcissists have difficulty regulating their self-esteem, needing praise and affiliations with special people or institutions to maintaining their self-esteem and is more common in men than women. (9) Narcissists overestimate their abilities and exaggerate their achievements, thinking they’re superior, unique or special. (9) They are preoccupied with fantasies of great achievements and feel they should only associate with others as special as themselves to support or enhance their self-esteem. (9) Narcissistic people may respond with rage or contempt or vicious counterattacks to criticism or avoid situations where they may fail. (9) To be a diagnosed narcissist, you must have a persistent pattern of grandiosity (exaggerated, unfounded sense of their own importance), preoccupied with fantasies of unlimited achievements, belief that they are special or unique, need to be unconditionally admired, exploit others, lack empathy, envy others, and are arrogant or haughty. (9) 

Cluster C personality disorders involve severe fear and anxiety, with avoidant, obsessive-compulsive, and dependent personality disorder. (8) Avoidant personality disorder is marked by chronic feelings of inadequacy, and patients are highly sensitive to being negatively judged, avoiding social interaction for fear of rejection. (8) Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (OCPD) is marked by an extreme, consistent need for orderliness, perfectionism, and control, (8, 9) with a severe focus on rules, minute details, procedures, schedules, and lists to maintain a sense of control. (9) They repeatedly check for mistakes and pay extraordinary attention to detail, so much so that they may neglect other aspects of life. (9) They tend to be solitary in their endeavors; mistrusting others’ help and are rigid and stubborn in their activities. (9) They’re overly dedicated to work and productivity so much that leisure and relationships are neglected. (9) Time spent with friends tends to be formally organized activities and hobbies or recreational activities are viewed as important tasks requiring organization and hard work. (9) Affection is expressed in informal, stiff, or serious ways, and OCPD patients are intolerant of emotional or expressive behavior, overzealous, picky, and rigid on issues of morality, ethics, and values, applying rigid moral principles to themselves and others. (9) It’s different from OCD because OCPD patients don’t recognize the need to change. (8) 

Dependent personality disorder involves a constant excessive need to be cared for by someone, submissiveness, constant reassurance, and inability to make decisions. They people-please, and display passive or clinging behavior. (8) 

From even a cursory overview of Cluster A personality disorder, one can conclude that neither man exhibited a Cluster A personality disorder. Jesus had deep, stable relationships with many people. (3, 21) His predictions about His death, though critics have interpreted it as paranoia, were completely justified. (3) Likewise, Muhammad also had close relationships with many people and showed no pervasive paranoia. Thus, the analysis must shift to Cluster B and C disorders. 

An analysis of the symptoms of Cluster B and C disorders shows Jesus’ life does not reflect any disorder from these categories either. Though Jesus was accused of being insane by his contemporaries, (Mark 3:21-22, John 10:20) (3) His responses to these accusations in passages such as Mark 3:31-35 and Matthew 12:46-50 are rational and calm. (3) Additionally, no mentally ill or evil person would have been able to speak or behave the way Jesus did. (21) All the evidence points to Him being a well-adjusted, mature person, with His words and deed never being in conflict with each other. (21) He was faultless in conduct, and all His virtues were perfectly in line with divine perfection. (14) He was always in control of Himself, even after betrayal; (Matthew 26:53-56) (3, 18) His teachings were not that of a lunatic; (i.e. “The Sermon on the Mount”) (3, 18) and He always demonstrated a concrete understanding of His identity and mission. (John 8:23) (3, 18)  

So strong is the evidence that Jesus was not insane that even Bart Ehrman, one of the most prominent agnostic atheists in recent memory, said, “The reality is that a lot of people today who are predicting the imminent end of the world may have a few screws loose. But the kinds of expectations that Jesus held about the coming kingdom of God in a cataclysmic display of divine force were not ‘weird’ or ‘way out there’ or ‘psycho’ in his day. They were fairly common. Unless you want to say that all apocalyptic Jews were clinically crazy, I don’t think you can say Jesus was.” (Paragraph 18) (20) He continues in the next paragraph, “And he may well have thought (I think he did think) that he would be made the messiah in a future kingdom. That may have been a rather exalted view of himself, but I don’t think it makes Jesus crazy. It makes him an unusually confident apocalyptic prophet. There were others with visions of grandeur at the time. I don’t think that makes him mentally ill. It makes him a first-century apocalyptic Jew.” (Paragraph 19, sentence 7-12) (20) Christian apologist, Don Stewart, also writes “A pathology of Jesus is possible only upon the basis of a lack of acquaintance with the course and conclusions of New Testament criticism and an amateur application of the principles of the science of psychiatry.” (19) (Paragraph 25) 

Further supporting that Jesus was not insane is that Romans didn’t execute people for insanity. (19) This theory was posed by Justin Meggit, a lecturer from the University of Cambridge, in his book The Madness of King Jesus: Why was Jesus Put to Death by His Followers Were Not? that Pilate and other Romans thought Jesus was insane and was executed as a royal pretender. (19) However, this explanation is insufficient as the Romans’ standard procedure was also to execute any would-be insurgents with their leaders. (19) 

However, as with the accusations of epilepsy, Muhammad has a much harder time standing against the accusations of having some sort of personality disorder. Though the Muslim world views him as the greatest prophet in history, the universal messenger to all mankind, a perfect example of human behavior beyond reproach, sinless, but not without human failings, sent to present and confirm the monotheistic teaching preached in previous Abrahamic religions, (11, 14) history paints a different story. When one looks at the historical accounts of Muhammad’s life, we see a man whose behavior was flawed at best and utterly reprehensible at worst. 

Muhammad was born in Mecca to a man named Abdullah (who died before he was born) and Aaminah on the 12th of Rabi-al-Awwal (around the 20th or 22nd of April 571.) (10) His grandfather, Abdul Muttalib, was the one who named him and took Muhammad to the Ka’ba where he performed Aqeeqah, praying to Allah for Muhammad’s health and long life, and giving thanks for his birth. (10) Aaminah, after suckling him for the first 7-9 days of his life, sent him to be brought up in the desert to become stronger and healthier. (10) He was given to a wet nurse named Halima, who was part of the Banu Saad branch of the Hawazin tribe. (10) His childhood was eventful, as numerous people attempted to kidnap or kill him, with some saying that he would become a king otherwise. (10) He stayed with Halima for an extended time by her request, (10) but Muhammad was eventually returned to his mother around the time he was five or six years old. (10) This time with his mother would be sadly short lived, as Aamina died on the return journey from Medina at Abwa, a village near Al-Juhfa, though some believe she died at Mecca when Muhammad was about 6-8 years old. (10) 

After this, he lived happily with Abdul Muttalib and his aunts Hamzah and Safiyah, who were about his age. (10) This lasted for two years, and after Muttalib died, Muhammad was sent to live with his uncle, Abu Talib, the leader of the Hashim tribe, and his wife, Fatimah bint Asad. (11)  

From there, Muhammad became a shepherd, then a merchant, working for a wealthy woman named Khadija, who was a third cousin of Muhammad’s mother and had three children from previous marriages. (11) He married her in 595 AD at the age of 25. (11) It was during his marriage to Khadija that he would be visited by Gabriel and commanded to recite verses from Allah. (11) In response, he believed he was possessed by a demon, became suicidal and repeatedly tried to jump off a cliff according to Sahih Bukhari. (11) More suicide attempts were made when the revelations stopped. (11) 

Muhammad soon began sharing his revelations and initially gained a few followers. (11) After Abu Talib died, he fled Mecca to Medina to escape persecution from the polytheists in Mecca, who were accusing him of plagiarizing the stories of the ancients, also stealing from those of Abrahamic faiths, and claimed that he was illiterate. (11) During this time, his revelations read poetry, but alterations in the content of the verses followed Muhammad’s rising place in society. (11) The gradually became more straight forward and violent as he gained power, with these later revelations abrogating the earlier ones. (11) Once in Medina, he united the tribes there under the constitution of Medina and ordered his followers to not contact their relatives in Mecca and cut ties with non-Muslim relatives. (11)  

While going to Medina, in March 624 AD, Muhammad and about 300 converts raided a Meccan merchant caravan, which led to the Battle of Badr when the Meccans retaliated. (11) The Muslims were victorious, killing 70 Meccans and taking 70 more as prisoners for ransom. (11) Surah 33:26 celebrates this victory, saying that Allah cast terror in their hearts so the Muslims could win. (14) In 629 AD, Muhammad invaded Mecca with ten-thousand men and won the city. (11) Three years later, in 632 AD, he became infirm with severe head pain and weakness, which may have been caused by an earlier event in which he was poisoned by a Jewess after the conquest of Khaybar. (11) 

After Khadija died, Muhammad became known for being a womanizer, (11, 14) having at least nine wives by the end of his life (14) (though some say he had fifteen wives (11) and numerous concubines, including a Coptic slave named Mariyah. (11)  He was 50 when he married who was possibly his first new wife, Sauda bint Zam’ah, and married Aisha around this time, though there’s evidence that he may have married Aisha first after Khadija died. (Sahih Muslim volume 2, page 748) (14) Aisha was his favorite wife, and she was soon disturbed by Muhammad’s growing number of wives after he married his fourth wife. (14) Inevitably, his many marriages and favoritism between them caused great jealousy and dissention amongst his wives. (14)  

This causes problems for Muhammad since in Sahih Muslim volume 4, page 1260, Muhammad said he was the most like Jesus out of “the whole of mankind.” (14) He even tried to outdo Jesus in Sahih Muslim volume 4, page 1230, says that he would be “preeminent among the descendants of Adam on the Day of Resurrection” and would serve as an intercessor for mankind. (14) While polygamy and caravan raiding were common facts of life in 7th-century Arabia, Muhammad was posited as a universal prophet and guide of mankind, making him subject to absolute standards. (14) However, he never condemned those practices, which stands in contrast to his claim to be like or outdo Jesus in morality. (14) 

Furthermore, Muhammad’s wives Aisha and Zaynab bint Jahsh provide huge issues for Muhammad’s claim to be like Jesus. To start with Aisha, she was six when Muhammad married her according to the Hadiths after Muhammad allegedly had a dream about her twice in which she was drawn on a piece of silk. (1, 12) Thus, after Muhammad managed to convince her father, Abu Bakr, to go along with it, he married her and consummated the marriage when she was 9. (1, 12) She became his favorite wife, so much so that Muhammad’s other wives had to beg for equal treatment, causing dissention. (1, 12) 

This is particularly startling as by all accounts; Muhammad was a pedophile. The practice of marrying girls young, especially once they hit puberty was common in pre-Islamic Arabia, but Muslims hold that Muhammad condemned their immorality. (12) If true, this also makes him a hypocrite. To get out of this, Muslims argue that he married Aisha as a part of Allah’s plan so Aisha could help girls her age with questions about sexual ethics and morals, and so her personality and life could be shaped by Muhammad so she could serve Allah well. (12) However, on this front, Muhammad didn’t have sufficient reason for Allah to ordain the marriage since he could have simply outlawed sex with young girls so girls Aisha’s age wouldn’t have to worry about it. (12) He also could have decreed that one had to wait until puberty to marry a girl. (12) Muslims have also argued that Muhammad married her because she was a precocious girl, but hadiths do not support this, as she seemed like a normal girl and Surah 65:4 of the Quran already allows pre-pubescent marriage. (12) There are also a few hadiths that say that Muhammad had a liking for young girls. (12) One of them says, “When I took the permission of Allah’s Apostle (the blessing and peace of Allah be upon him), he asked me whether I had married a matron. He said: ‘Why hadn’t you married a virgin that would play with you, and you would play with her?’” (Paragraph 22, sentence 1-2) (12) This not only terrible for Aisha because of the effects on her health, but because Muhammad was already old, marrying Aisha doomed her to a life of widowhood since Surah 33:53 prohibits marrying his widows. (12) 

Moving on to Muhammad’s marriage to Zaynab bint Jahsh, this marriage was in direct opposition to Jesus’ teaching in Luke 16:18 and Mark 10:9 which both condemn divorce. (3, 14) Zaynab was originally the wife of Muhammad’s adopted son, Zaid. (14) Muhammad lusted after her and told his son, who divorced her, and after Zaynab’s waiting period between divorce and remarriage, Muhammad married her as recorded in Sahih Muslim 1428b. (1, 14) 

The way that Muhammad reacted to criticism and resistance is also extremely telling. Most of the individuals assassinated by Muhammad were killed for their satire against him or their challenges to his claim to be the prophet of Allah. (14) An-Nadr ibn al-Harith was assassinated by Muhammad for ridiculing the Quran and reciting Persian legends that were more beautiful than Muhammad’s recitations after the Battle of Badr. (14) 

 Ka’b ibn Ashraf was another victim of Muhammad’s. (14) He was a Jewish resident of Medina who composed satirical verses against Muhammad, using his talent in Mecca to get the Quraysh tribe to rise against Muhammad in response to the Battle of Badr. (14) Sahih Bukhari volume 4, page 168, Sahih Bukhari volume 5, page 248, Ibn Ishaq’s Sirat Rasulullah page 367, and Ibn Sa’d in Kitab al-Tabaqat al-Kabir volume 2, pages 36-37 all record Muhammad’s order for Ashraf’s death and the subsequent assassination. (14) Muhammad ordered his followers to kill Ashraf using any method necessary, including through lying and trickery. (14) Sahih Muslim volume 3, page 99 and Ibn Sa’d in Kitab al-Tabaqat al-Kabir volume 2, pages 36-37 record that Muhammad’s followers did lie to lure Ashraf into the trap that led to his murder. (14) 

Abu Rafi, the leader of the Banu Nadhir tribe was killed in Khaybar in a similar manner to Ashraf according to Sahih Bukhari volume 5, pages 253-254 and Ibn Ishaq in Sirat Rasulullah page 483. (14) Al-Harith ibn Suwayd ibn Samit and ‘Asma bint Marwan both died for satire, too. (Sirat Rasulullah pages 675-676) (14) Muhammad also allowed a follower of his named al-Zubayr, to torture a man to find out where a large sum of money was hidden. (14) When it was clear that there was nothing to be gained, Muhammad had him decapitated. (14) 

Additionally, not only did Muhammad curse the Jews, but he also cursed the Christians (Surah 9:30), the opposite of what Jesus did in Luke 6:27-28, 9:55, 23:34. (3, 14) Muhammad’s initial contact with Christians were less frequent compared to his interactions with the Jews. (14)  From his experience with the Negus of Abyssinia, he originally treated Christians more favorably, regarding them as potential friends and allies, as shown in Surah 5:85, 22:40, and 30:4. (2, 14) This soon turned into antagonism as the Christians began challenging his claims to prophethood, specifically having issues with the Quran ignores the doctrine of Jesus’ atonement on the cross, (Surah 5:54, 60) and the ubiquitousness of the name “Maryam,” which is used both for the name of Moses’ sister and Jesus’ mother. (Sahih Muslim volume 3, page 1169) (14)  

Later, during the clash with the Byzantines in Muhammad’s final years, Muhammad reviled the Christians for kufr (Surah 5:75-76) and in Sahih Muslim volume 3, page 965 and Muwatta Imam Malik 371, he so greatly hated the Jews and Christian that he commanded their expulsions. (14) As he was dying, he gave instruction to his follower, ‘Umar, to ensure the Jews would be driven out of the Arabian Peninsula. (14) 

Perhaps the bloodiest example of Muhammad’s evil is what he did to the Medinan Jews (11) after the Battle of the Ditch, (14) also known as the Battle of the Trench, which took place in 627 AD. (11) After this battle and the ensuing siege, Muhammad led a wholesale massacre of the prisoners. (Ibn Ishaq, Sirat Rasulullah page 464 and Ibn Sa’d Kitab al-Tabaqat al-Kabir volume 2 page 93) (14) Muhammad ordered the men and boys to be beheaded, and the women and young children were sold into slavery. (11) According to al-Tabari, many of the heads were personally severed by Mehammed, filling a trench as they were brought to him. (11) Wiki Islam writes: “One of the explanations given by some Arab historians and biographers for Muhammad’s treatment of the Jews of Medina is that ‘the punishment of the Medina Jews who were invited to convert and refused, perfectly exemplify the Qur’an’s tales of what happened to those who rejected the prophets of old.’” (Paragraph 24) (11)  

Muslims try to argue that this was standard procedure for military leaders, but it hardly fits into the standard of conduct that Jesus laid out. (14) Though many Old Testament prophets acted callously, Muhammad was expressly comparing himself to Jesus, who never behaved callously, much less beheaded hundreds of people. (14) From this we can see that Muhammad and his companions’ actions line up closer to the words of Jesus in John 3:19-20, 8:44, and Ephesians 5:12. (3, 14)  

By even these few events in Muhammad’s life, it’s easy to believe that he may have had a personality disorder that falls into Cluster B. Certainly, Cluster A can be ruled out since, while Sahih Bukhari 3562 describes him as being “shier than a virgin girl,” (1, 11) he did not seem to exhibit paranoia or have issues with his relationships of the type experience by those with Cluster A personality disorders. Cluster C can also be largely ruled out, with the exception of obsessive-compulsive personality disorder. Thus, it’s possible that Muhammad could have had narcissistic, borderline, anti-social, or histrionic personality disorder, with the most plausible one being borderline. From historical accounts of his life, he was constantly abandoned as a child, he was callous, didn’t respond well to criticism, was self-seeking, controlling, a womanizer, a pedophile, was suicidal, etc.  

Another theory as to why Jesus and Muhammad said the things they did is that they may have had dissociative identity disorder (DID). Dissociative identity disorder was formerly known as multiple or split personality disorder and is extremely rare, with a small U.S. study finding that it only affects 1.5% of people. (16) Typically, it’s caused by severe trauma, stressful experiences, or abuse during childhood which forces the patient to develop two or more separate personalities as a coping mechanism. (16) These personalities – known as “alters” – may have different behaviors, memories, thought patterns, expressions, ethnicities, and ways of interacting with things. (16) These alters control the patient’s behavior at different times. (16) Memories may not transfer from one personality to another, leaving gaps in the patient’s memory as personalities switch in response to different triggers. (16) Symptoms of DID begin to appear between five to ten years old and are commonly overlooked by parents, guardians, and family members, and often mistaken for other disorders such as ADHD. (16) Symptoms include feeling detached from reality, confused by what others say about your behavior, stress from not being in control, feeling like you’re watching yourself from the outside, and amnesia. (16) 

There are two forms of dissociative identity disorder, called possession and non-possession. (16) During possession, the alters or identities present as though an outside entity took control of the body, with the patient speaking or acting differently in a way that’s obvious to others. (16) In non-possession, the identities are less known to others, with patients feeling like they are having an out-of-body experience, unable to control their speech, emotions, or behaviors. (16) In both cases, the switch is unwanted or involuntary. (16) Because of this, DID is often accompanied by anxiety, delusions, depression, self-harm, suicidal ideation, and substance abuse disorder, with more than 70% of DID patients attempting suicide or self-mutilating. (16) 

Like with the other accusations of epilepsy or the existence of various personality disorders, there is no evidence from Jesus’ life, actions, or words to support His having dissociative identity disorder. From the Gospels, we know that He likely had a stable family life, had a solid understanding of who He was, understood His mission, and never seemed to switch from one identity to another. (3)  

On the other hand, Muhammad has more to support the possibly of having dissociative identity disorder. He was given away as a baby, had people trying to kidnap or kill him, was sent back to his mom, soon orphaned, raised by his grandfather until he passed, then was sent to his uncle. This could have set up the foundation for developing DID, but because of how well-timed some of his revelations were and the involuntary nature of DID, doubt can be reasonably cast on this diagnosis. For example, in Sahih Bukhari 4788, Aisha comments, “I feel that your Lord hastens in fulfilling your wishes and desires,” (1) in response to Muhammad’s revelation of Surah 33:51 (2) which helped justify his marriage to Zaynab bint Jahsh. 

Additionally, the very existence of dissociative identity disorder is widely disputed amongst doctors, with many saying that it’s not a real disorder. Thus, further doubt can be put on this diagnosis for both Jesus and Muhammad. 

However, if neither man were epileptic or insane, this leaves what’s possibly the oldest and most serious accusation against either of them: demon possession, which will be discussed in the next post.

Until next time,

M.J.

Apologetics: Flippin’ Fatwa Friday – A Comparison of Claims About the Insanity of Jesus and the Insanity of Muhammad. (Part 2)

While epilepsy is a plausible explanation for Muhammad’s behavior, and an impossible one for Jesus’, another theory must be considered. The existence of personality disorders in both men has been suggested and it’s also worthwhile to examine the symptoms of them to see if they fit. Personality disorders exist when the patient’s way of thinking, perceiving, reacting, and relating to others becomes so pronounced, rigid, and maladaptive that they negatively affect work or interpersonal functioning. (9) Childhood trauma, verbal abuse, and cultural factors have also been linked to the development of personality disorders. (8) They can be identified by the lack of a clear, stable image of self, unrealistically high or low self-esteem, and an unawareness of how their thoughts or actions are problematic. (8) Patients may exhibit bad beliefs or actions, lack empathy or respect, and be emotionally detached or overly needy attention or care. (8) Their behavior may be inconsistent, frustrating, or confusing to others, and they may have issues understanding realistic and acceptable ways to treat others. (8) With the exception of anti-social personality disorder (which can appear as early as 11), personality disorders are identifiable by 18. (8) Left untreated, their disorders may result in poor relationships, occupational issues and impaired social functioning. (8) The ten different types of personality disorders are categorized by the DSM-5 into three main categories or “clusters.” (8) 

The first category is known as Cluster A. (8) Cluster A personality disorders involve unusual or eccentric thinking or behavior. (8) Paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal personality disorders fall into this category. (8) Paranoid personality disorder gives people a relentless, unmerited suspicion or distrust of others, with the belief that others are trying to demean, harm, or threaten them. (8) Schizoid personality disorder is less intense and is marked by a consistent pattern of detachment from or a general disinterest in personal relationships. (8) Patients with schizoid personality disorder usually have a limited range of emotions when with others. (8) Patients with schizotypal personality disorder experience a consistent pattern of discomfort and have a limited need for close relationships. Any relationships they have may be hindered by their distorted view of reality, superstitions, or strange behaviors. (8)  

Meanwhile, Cluster B personality disorders involve dramatic or erratic and impulsive behavior and intense, unstable emotions. (8) The specific disorders that fall into Cluster B are antisocial, borderline, narcissistic, and histrionic personality disorders. (8) 

Starting with the symptoms of antisocial personality disorder (ASPD), antisocial personality disorder is displayed by a lack of respect towards others and a rejection of social norms and rules. (8) people with ASPD may break the law, cause harm to others, and refuse to take responsibility or display regard for the negative consequences of their actions. (8) They may be deceitful, exploitative, and reckless, all for personal profit or pleasure with no remorse, usually justifying or rationalizing their behavior in some way. (8) They may steal, harass others, manipulate, con, or destroy property. (9) They do not think about the consequences for or safety of themselves or others, and may suddenly change jobs, homes, or relationships, consume excessive amounts of alcohol or take illicit drugs, are socially and financially irresponsible, irritable, physically aggressive, abusive towards their spouse or partner, or polyamorous. (9) They’re extremely opinionated, self-assured, and arrogant, but can act charming, voluble, and verbally facile to get what they want. (9) ASPD can also be comorbid with impulse control, mood, anxiety, gambling, and bipolar disorder, as well as ADHD. (9) 

The cause of anti-social personality disorder is unknown, though scientists believe that genetic and environmental influences may contribute to the development of ASPD. (9) It’s more often found among 1st degree relatives of patients who also have it than in the general population. (9) Children who have been abused or neglected, or who had parents with inconsistent disciplining or parenting styles, are at increased risk of developing it. (9) 

To be diagnosed with ASPD, one must have a persistent disregard for the rights of others and the law, deceitfulness indicated by repeated lying, use of aliases, and conning for personal gain. (9) There must also be impulsivity, irritability and aggression (constantly getting into physical fights and assaulting others), recklessly disregarding the safety of self or others, constant irresponsibility, and a lack of remorse. (9) These symptoms must be present before the patient is 15 years old. (9) 

Meanwhile, borderline disorder is marked with difficulty regulating emotions, low self-esteem, mood swings, impulsivity, and relationship difficulties. (8) Symptoms of borderline disorder can also overlap with those presented in histrionic or narcissistic personality disorder and is commonly misdiagnosed as bipolar disorder. (9) Patients with borderline personality disorder often feel furious or panicky when they feel abandoned, even if it’s for something small (like being slightly late.) (9) They may change their view of a person abruptly after a period of idealization, suddenly demeaning the other person. (9) Another trait of borderline personality disorder is that they have difficulty controlling their anger, becoming disproportionately angry, for which they will feel ashamed. (9) They may often self-sabotage, dramatically change their self-image, feel empty inside, self-mutilate or attempt suicide, and may have dissociative episodes, paranoid thoughts, or psychotic symptoms (such as hallucinations.) (9) The cause of this is most linked to childhood separation from caregivers, the death of a parent, and physical or sexual abuse. (9) 

Histrionic personality disorder can be identified if the patient has intense, unstable emotions, a distorted self-image, dramatic, inappropriate, and attention-seeking behaviors, and self-esteem that’s dependent upon the approval of others. (8) They may use their physical appearance and act inappropriately in seductive or provocative ways. (8) Their emotions are persistently excessive, and rapidly shifting or shallow. (9) They are uncomfortable when they’re not the center of attention, are highly suggestible, theatrical and self-dramatizing, and interpret relationships as more intimate than they are. (9) 

Narcissistic personality disorder is like histrionic personality disorder and involves a consistent pattern of perceived superiority or grandiosity, need for praise or admiration, and a lack of empathy. (8) Narcissists have difficulty regulating their self-esteem, needing praise and affiliations with special people or institutions to maintaining their self-esteem and is more common in men than women. (9) Narcissists overestimate their abilities and exaggerate their achievements, thinking they’re superior, unique or special. (9) They are preoccupied with fantasies of great achievements and feel they should only associate with others as special as themselves to support or enhance their self-esteem. (9) Narcissistic people may respond with rage or contempt or vicious counterattacks to criticism or avoid situations where they may fail. (9) To be a diagnosed narcissist, you must have a persistent pattern of grandiosity (exaggerated, unfounded sense of their own importance), preoccupied with fantasies of unlimited achievements, belief that they are special or unique, need to be unconditionally admired, exploit others, lack empathy, envy others, and are arrogant or haughty. (9) 

Cluster C personality disorders involve severe fear and anxiety, with avoidant, obsessive-compulsive, and dependent personality disorder. (8) Avoidant personality disorder is marked by chronic feelings of inadequacy, and patients are highly sensitive to being negatively judged, avoiding social interaction for fear of rejection. (8) Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (OCPD) is marked by an extreme, consistent need for orderliness, perfectionism, and control, (8, 9) with a severe focus on rules, minute details, procedures, schedules, and lists to maintain a sense of control. (9) They repeatedly check for mistakes and pay extraordinary attention to detail, so much so that they may neglect other aspects of life. (9) They tend to be solitary in their endeavors; mistrusting others’ help and are rigid and stubborn in their activities. (9) They’re overly dedicated to work and productivity so much that leisure and relationships are neglected. (9) Time spent with friends tends to be formally organized activities and hobbies or recreational activities are viewed as important tasks requiring organization and hard work. (9) Affection is expressed in informal, stiff, or serious ways, and OCPD patients are intolerant of emotional or expressive behavior, overzealous, picky, and rigid on issues of morality, ethics, and values, applying rigid moral principles to themselves and others. (9) It’s different from OCD because OCPD patients don’t recognize the need to change. (8) 

Dependent personality disorder involves a constant excessive need to be cared for by someone, submissiveness, constant reassurance, and inability to make decisions. They people-please, and display passive or clinging behavior. (8) 

From even a cursory overview of Cluster A personality disorder, one can conclude that neither man exhibited a Cluster A personality disorder. Jesus had deep, stable relationships with many people. (3, 21) His predictions about His death, though critics have interpreted it as paranoia, were completely justified. (3) Likewise, Muhammad also had close relationships with many people and showed no pervasive paranoia. Thus, the analysis must shift to Cluster B and C disorders. 

An analysis of the symptoms of Cluster B and C disorders shows Jesus’ life does not reflect any disorder from these categories either. Though Jesus was accused of being insane by his contemporaries, (Mark 3:21-22, John 10:20) (3) His responses to these accusations in passages such as Mark 3:31-35 and Matthew 12:46-50 are rational and calm. (3) Additionally, no mentally ill or evil person would have been able to speak or behave the way Jesus did. (21) All the evidence points to Him being a well-adjusted, mature person, with His words and deed never being in conflict with each other. (21) He was faultless in conduct, and all His virtues were perfectly in line with divine perfection. (14) He was always in control of Himself, even after betrayal; (Matthew 26:53-56) (3, 18) His teachings were not that of a lunatic; (i.e. “The Sermon on the Mount”) (3, 18) and He always demonstrated a concrete understanding of His identity and mission. (John 8:23) (3, 18)  

So strong is the evidence that Jesus was not insane that even Bart Ehrman, one of the most prominent agnostic atheists in recent memory, said, “The reality is that a lot of people today who are predicting the imminent end of the world may have a few screws loose. But the kinds of expectations that Jesus held about the coming kingdom of God in a cataclysmic display of divine force were not ‘weird’ or ‘way out there’ or ‘psycho’ in his day. They were fairly common. Unless you want to say that all apocalyptic Jews were clinically crazy, I don’t think you can say Jesus was.” (Paragraph 18) (20) He continues in the next paragraph, “And he may well have thought (I think he did think) that he would be made the messiah in a future kingdom. That may have been a rather exalted view of himself, but I don’t think it makes Jesus crazy. It makes him an unusually confident apocalyptic prophet. There were others with visions of grandeur at the time. I don’t think that makes him mentally ill. It makes him a first-century apocalyptic Jew.” (Paragraph 19, sentence 7-12) (20) Christian apologist, Don Stewart, also writes “A pathology of Jesus is possible only upon the basis of a lack of acquaintance with the course and conclusions of New Testament criticism and an amateur application of the principles of the science of psychiatry.” (19) (Paragraph 25) 

Further supporting that Jesus was not insane is that Romans didn’t execute people for insanity. (19) This theory was posed by Justin Meggit, a lecturer from the University of Cambridge, in his book The Madness of King Jesus: Why was Jesus Put to Death by His Followers Were Not? that Pilate and other Romans thought Jesus was insane and was executed as a royal pretender. (19) However, this explanation is insufficient as the Romans’ standard procedure was also to execute any would-be insurgents with their leaders. (19) 

However, as with the accusations of epilepsy, Muhammad has a much harder time standing against the accusations of having some sort of personality disorder. Though the Muslim world views him as the greatest prophet in history, the universal messenger to all mankind, a perfect example of human behavior beyond reproach, sinless, but not without human failings, sent to present and confirm the monotheistic teaching preached in previous Abrahamic religions, (11, 14) history paints a different story. When one looks at the historical accounts of Muhammad’s life, we see a man whose behavior was flawed at best and utterly reprehensible at worst. 

Muhammad was born in Mecca to a man named Abdullah (who died before he was born) and Aaminah on the 12th of Rabi-al-Awwal (around the 20th or 22nd of April 571.) (10) His grandfather, Abdul Muttalib, was the one who named him and took Muhammad to the Ka’ba where he performed Aqeeqah, praying to Allah for Muhammad’s health and long life, and giving thanks for his birth. (10) Aaminah, after suckling him for the first 7-9 days of his life, sent him to be brought up in the desert to become stronger and healthier. (10) He was given to a wet nurse named Halima, who was part of the Banu Saad branch of the Hawazin tribe. (10) His childhood was eventful, as numerous people attempted to kidnap or kill him, with some saying that he would become a king otherwise. (10) He stayed with Halima for an extended time by her request, (10) but Muhammad was eventually returned to his mother around the time he was five or six years old. (10) This time with his mother would be sadly short lived, as Aamina died on the return journey from Medina at Abwa, a village near Al-Juhfa, though some believe she died at Mecca when Muhammad was about 6-8 years old. (10) 

After this, he lived happily with Abdul Muttalib and his aunts Hamzah and Safiyah, who were about his age. (10) This lasted for two years, and after Muttalib died, Muhammad was sent to live with his uncle, Abu Talib, the leader of the Hashim tribe, and his wife, Fatimah bint Asad. (11)  

From there, Muhammad became a shepherd, then a merchant, working for a wealthy woman named Khadija, who was a third cousin of Muhammad’s mother and had three children from previous marriages. (11) He married her in 595 AD at the age of 25. (11) It was during his marriage to Khadija that he would be visited by Gabriel and commanded to recite verses from Allah. (11) In response, he believed he was possessed by a demon, became suicidal and repeatedly tried to jump off a cliff according to Sahih Bukhari. (11) More suicide attempts were made when the revelations stopped. (11) 

Muhammad soon began sharing his revelations and initially gained a few followers. (11) After Abu Talib died, he fled Mecca to Medina to escape persecution from the polytheists in Mecca, who were accusing him of plagiarizing the stories of the ancients, also stealing from those of Abrahamic faiths, and claimed that he was illiterate. (11) During this time, his revelations read poetry, but alterations in the content of the verses followed Muhammad’s rising place in society. (11) The gradually became more straight forward and violent as he gained power, with these later revelations abrogating the earlier ones. (11) Once in Medina, he united the tribes there under the constitution of Medina and ordered his followers to not contact their relatives in Mecca and cut ties with non-Muslim relatives. (11)  

While going to Medina, in March 624 AD, Muhammad and about 300 converts raided a Meccan merchant caravan, which led to the Battle of Badr when the Meccans retaliated. (11) The Muslims were victorious, killing 70 Meccans and taking 70 more as prisoners for ransom. (11) Surah 33:26 celebrates this victory, saying that Allah cast terror in their hearts so the Muslims could win. (14) In 629 AD, Muhammad invaded Mecca with ten-thousand men and won the city. (11) Three years later, in 632 AD, he became infirm with severe head pain and weakness, which may have been caused by an earlier event in which he was poisoned by a Jewess after the conquest of Khaybar. (11) 

After Khadija died, Muhammad became known for being a womanizer, (11, 14) having at least nine wives by the end of his life (14) (though some say he had fifteen wives (11) and numerous concubines, including a Coptic slave named Mariyah. (11)  He was 50 when he married who was possibly his first new wife, Sauda bint Zam’ah, and married Aisha around this time, though there’s evidence that he may have married Aisha first after Khadija died. (Sahih Muslim volume 2, page 748) (14) Aisha was his favorite wife, and she was soon disturbed by Muhammad’s growing number of wives after he married his fourth wife. (14) Inevitably, his many marriages and favoritism between them caused great jealousy and dissention amongst his wives. (14)  

This causes problems for Muhammad since in Sahih Muslim volume 4, page 1260, Muhammad said he was the most like Jesus out of “the whole of mankind.” (14) He even tried to outdo Jesus in Sahih Muslim volume 4, page 1230, says that he would be “preeminent among the descendants of Adam on the Day of Resurrection” and would serve as an intercessor for mankind. (14) While polygamy and caravan raiding were common facts of life in 7th-century Arabia, Muhammad was posited as a universal prophet and guide of mankind, making him subject to absolute standards. (14) However, he never condemned those practices, which stands in contrast to his claim to be like or outdo Jesus in morality. (14) 

Furthermore, Muhammad’s wives Aisha and Zaynab bint Jahsh provide huge issues for Muhammad’s claim to be like Jesus. To start with Aisha, she was six when Muhammad married her according to the Hadiths after Muhammad allegedly had a dream about her twice in which she was drawn on a piece of silk. (1, 12) Thus, after Muhammad managed to convince her father, Abu Bakr, to go along with it, he married her and consummated the marriage when she was 9. (1, 12) She became his favorite wife, so much so that Muhammad’s other wives had to beg for equal treatment, causing dissention. (1, 12) 

This is particularly startling as by all accounts; Muhammad was a pedophile. The practice of marrying girls young, especially once they hit puberty was common in pre-Islamic Arabia, but Muslims hold that Muhammad condemned their immorality. (12) If true, this also makes him a hypocrite. To get out of this, Muslims argue that he married Aisha as a part of Allah’s plan so Aisha could help girls her age with questions about sexual ethics and morals, and so her personality and life could be shaped by Muhammad so she could serve Allah well. (12) However, on this front, Muhammad didn’t have sufficient reason for Allah to ordain the marriage since he could have simply outlawed sex with young girls so girls Aisha’s age wouldn’t have to worry about it. (12) He also could have decreed that one had to wait until puberty to marry a girl. (12) Muslims have also argued that Muhammad married her because she was a precocious girl, but hadiths do not support this, as she seemed like a normal girl and Surah 65:4 of the Quran already allows pre-pubescent marriage. (12) There are also a few hadiths that say that Muhammad had a liking for young girls. (12) One of them says, “When I took the permission of Allah’s Apostle (the blessing and peace of Allah be upon him), he asked me whether I had married a matron. He said: ‘Why hadn’t you married a virgin that would play with you, and you would play with her?’” (Paragraph 22, sentence 1-2) (12) This not only terrible for Aisha because of the effects on her health, but because Muhammad was already old, marrying Aisha doomed her to a life of widowhood since Surah 33:53 prohibits marrying his widows. (12) 

Moving on to Muhammad’s marriage to Zaynab bint Jahsh, this marriage was in direct opposition to Jesus’ teaching in Luke 16:18 and Mark 10:9 which both condemn divorce. (3, 14) Zaynab was originally the wife of Muhammad’s adopted son, Zaid. (14) Muhammad lusted after her and told his son, who divorced her, and after Zaynab’s waiting period between divorce and remarriage, Muhammad married her as recorded in Sahih Muslim 1428b. (1, 14) 

The way that Muhammad reacted to criticism and resistance is also extremely telling. Most of the individuals assassinated by Muhammad were killed for their satire against him or their challenges to his claim to be the prophet of Allah. (14) An-Nadr ibn al-Harith was assassinated by Muhammad for ridiculing the Quran and reciting Persian legends that were more beautiful than Muhammad’s recitations after the Battle of Badr. (14) 

 Ka’b ibn Ashraf was another victim of Muhammad’s. (14) He was a Jewish resident of Medina who composed satirical verses against Muhammad, using his talent in Mecca to get the Quraysh tribe to rise against Muhammad in response to the Battle of Badr. (14) Sahih Bukhari volume 4, page 168, Sahih Bukhari volume 5, page 248, Ibn Ishaq’s Sirat Rasulullah page 367, and Ibn Sa’d in Kitab al-Tabaqat al-Kabir volume 2, pages 36-37 all record Muhammad’s order for Ashraf’s death and the subsequent assassination. (14) Muhammad ordered his followers to kill Ashraf using any method necessary, including through lying and trickery. (14) Sahih Muslim volume 3, page 99 and Ibn Sa’d in Kitab al-Tabaqat al-Kabir volume 2, pages 36-37 record that Muhammad’s followers did lie to lure Ashraf into the trap that led to his murder. (14) 

Abu Rafi, the leader of the Banu Nadhir tribe was killed in Khaybar in a similar manner to Ashraf according to Sahih Bukhari volume 5, pages 253-254 and Ibn Ishaq in Sirat Rasulullah page 483. (14) Al-Harith ibn Suwayd ibn Samit and ‘Asma bint Marwan both died for satire, too. (Sirat Rasulullah pages 675-676) (14) Muhammad also allowed a follower of his named al-Zubayr, to torture a man to find out where a large sum of money was hidden. (14) When it was clear that there was nothing to be gained, Muhammad had him decapitated. (14) 

Additionally, not only did Muhammad curse the Jews, but he also cursed the Christians (Surah 9:30), the opposite of what Jesus did in Luke 6:27-28, 9:55, 23:34. (3, 14) Muhammad’s initial contact with Christians were less frequent compared to his interactions with the Jews. (14)  From his experience with the Negus of Abyssinia, he originally treated Christians more favorably, regarding them as potential friends and allies, as shown in Surah 5:85, 22:40, and 30:4. (2, 14) This soon turned into antagonism as the Christians began challenging his claims to prophethood, specifically having issues with the Quran ignores the doctrine of Jesus’ atonement on the cross, (Surah 5:54, 60) and the ubiquitousness of the name “Maryam,” which is used both for the name of Moses’ sister and Jesus’ mother. (Sahih Muslim volume 3, page 1169) (14)  

Later, during the clash with the Byzantines in Muhammad’s final years, Muhammad reviled the Christians for kufr (Surah 5:75-76) and in Sahih Muslim volume 3, page 965 and Muwatta Imam Malik 371, he so greatly hated the Jews and Christian that he commanded their expulsions. (14) As he was dying, he gave instruction to his follower, ‘Umar, to ensure the Jews would be driven out of the Arabian Peninsula. (14) 

Perhaps the bloodiest example of Muhammad’s evil is what he did to the Medinan Jews (11) after the Battle of the Ditch, (14) also known as the Battle of the Trench, which took place in 627 AD. (11) After this battle and the ensuing siege, Muhammad led a wholesale massacre of the prisoners. (Ibn Ishaq, Sirat Rasulullah page 464 and Ibn Sa’d Kitab al-Tabaqat al-Kabir volume 2 page 93) (14) Muhammad ordered the men and boys to be beheaded, and the women and young children were sold into slavery. (11) According to al-Tabari, many of the heads were personally severed by Mehammed, filling a trench as they were brought to him. (11) Wiki Islam writes: “One of the explanations given by some Arab historians and biographers for Muhammad’s treatment of the Jews of Medina is that ‘the punishment of the Medina Jews who were invited to convert and refused, perfectly exemplify the Qur’an’s tales of what happened to those who rejected the prophets of old.’” (Paragraph 24) (11)  

Muslims try to argue that this was standard procedure for military leaders, but it hardly fits into the standard of conduct that Jesus laid out. (14) Though many Old Testament prophets acted callously, Muhammad was expressly comparing himself to Jesus, who never behaved callously, much less beheaded hundreds of people. (14) From this we can see that Muhammad and his companions’ actions line up closer to the words of Jesus in John 3:19-20, 8:44, and Ephesians 5:12. (3, 14)  

By even these few events in Muhammad’s life, it’s easy to believe that he may have had a personality disorder that falls into Cluster B. Certainly, Cluster A can be ruled out since, while Sahih Bukhari 3562 describes him as being “shier than a virgin girl,” (1, 11) he did not seem to exhibit paranoia or have issues with his relationships of the type experience by those with Cluster A personality disorders. Cluster C can also be largely ruled out, with the exception of obsessive-compulsive personality disorder. Thus, it’s possible that Muhammad could have had narcissistic, borderline, anti-social, or histrionic personality disorder, with the most plausible one being borderline. From historical accounts of his life, he was constantly abandoned as a child, he was callous, didn’t respond well to criticism, was self-seeking, controlling, a womanizer, a pedophile, was suicidal, etc.  

Another theory as to why Jesus and Muhammad said the things they did is that they may have had dissociative identity disorder (DID). Dissociative identity disorder was formerly known as multiple or split personality disorder and is extremely rare, with a small U.S. study finding that it only affects 1.5% of people. (16) Typically, it’s caused by severe trauma, stressful experiences, or abuse during childhood which forces the patient to develop two or more separate personalities as a coping mechanism. (16) These personalities – known as “alters” – may have different behaviors, memories, thought patterns, expressions, ethnicities, and ways of interacting with things. (16) These alters control the patient’s behavior at different times. (16) Memories may not transfer from one personality to another, leaving gaps in the patient’s memory as personalities switch in response to different triggers. (16) Symptoms of DID begin to appear between five to ten years old and are commonly overlooked by parents, guardians, and family members, and often mistaken for other disorders such as ADHD. (16) Symptoms include feeling detached from reality, confused by what others say about your behavior, stress from not being in control, feeling like you’re watching yourself from the outside, and amnesia. (16) 

There are two forms of dissociative identity disorder, called possession and non-possession. (16) During possession, the alters or identities present as though an outside entity took control of the body, with the patient speaking or acting differently in a way that’s obvious to others. (16) In non-possession, the identities are less known to others, with patients feeling like they are having an out-of-body experience, unable to control their speech, emotions, or behaviors. (16) In both cases, the switch is unwanted or involuntary. (16) Because of this, DID is often accompanied by anxiety, delusions, depression, self-harm, suicidal ideation, and substance abuse disorder, with more than 70% of DID patients attempting suicide or self-mutilating. (16) 

Like with the other accusations of epilepsy or the existence of various personality disorders, there is no evidence from Jesus’ life, actions, or words to support His having dissociative identity disorder. From the Gospels, we know that He likely had a stable family life, had a solid understanding of who He was, understood His mission, and never seemed to switch from one identity to another. (3)  

On the other hand, Muhammad has more to support the possibly of having dissociative identity disorder. He was given away as a baby, had people trying to kidnap or kill him, was sent back to his mom, soon orphaned, raised by his grandfather until he passed, then was sent to his uncle. This could have set up the foundation for developing DID, but because of how well-timed some of his revelations were and the involuntary nature of DID, doubt can be reasonably cast on this diagnosis. For example, in Sahih Bukhari 4788, Aisha comments, “I feel that your Lord hastens in fulfilling your wishes and desires,” (1) in response to Muhammad’s revelation of Surah 33:51 (2) which helped justify his marriage to Zaynab bint Jahsh. 

Additionally, the very existence of dissociative identity disorder is widely disputed amongst doctors, with many saying that it’s not a real disorder. Thus, further doubt can be put on this diagnosis for both Jesus and Muhammad. 

However, if neither man were epileptic or insane, this leaves what’s possibly the oldest and most serious accusation against either of them: demon possession, which will be discussed in the next post.

Until next time,

M.J.

Apologetics: Flippin’ Fatwa Friday – A Comparison of Claims About the Insanity of Jesus and the Insanity of Muhammad. (Part 2)

While epilepsy is a plausible explanation for Muhammad’s behavior, and an impossible one for Jesus’, another theory must be considered. The existence of personality disorders in both men has been suggested and it’s also worthwhile to examine the symptoms of them to see if they fit. Personality disorders exist when the patient’s way of thinking, perceiving, reacting, and relating to others becomes so pronounced, rigid, and maladaptive that they negatively affect work or interpersonal functioning. (9) Childhood trauma, verbal abuse, and cultural factors have also been linked to the development of personality disorders. (8) They can be identified by the lack of a clear, stable image of self, unrealistically high or low self-esteem, and an unawareness of how their thoughts or actions are problematic. (8) Patients may exhibit bad beliefs or actions, lack empathy or respect, and be emotionally detached or overly needy attention or care. (8) Their behavior may be inconsistent, frustrating, or confusing to others, and they may have issues understanding realistic and acceptable ways to treat others. (8) With the exception of anti-social personality disorder (which can appear as early as 11), personality disorders are identifiable by 18. (8) Left untreated, their disorders may result in poor relationships, occupational issues and impaired social functioning. (8) The ten different types of personality disorders are categorized by the DSM-5 into three main categories or “clusters.” (8) 

The first category is known as Cluster A. (8) Cluster A personality disorders involve unusual or eccentric thinking or behavior. (8) Paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal personality disorders fall into this category. (8) Paranoid personality disorder gives people a relentless, unmerited suspicion or distrust of others, with the belief that others are trying to demean, harm, or threaten them. (8) Schizoid personality disorder is less intense and is marked by a consistent pattern of detachment from or a general disinterest in personal relationships. (8) Patients with schizoid personality disorder usually have a limited range of emotions when with others. (8) Patients with schizotypal personality disorder experience a consistent pattern of discomfort and have a limited need for close relationships. Any relationships they have may be hindered by their distorted view of reality, superstitions, or strange behaviors. (8)  

Meanwhile, Cluster B personality disorders involve dramatic or erratic and impulsive behavior and intense, unstable emotions. (8) The specific disorders that fall into Cluster B are antisocial, borderline, narcissistic, and histrionic personality disorders. (8) 

Starting with the symptoms of antisocial personality disorder (ASPD), antisocial personality disorder is displayed by a lack of respect towards others and a rejection of social norms and rules. (8) people with ASPD may break the law, cause harm to others, and refuse to take responsibility or display regard for the negative consequences of their actions. (8) They may be deceitful, exploitative, and reckless, all for personal profit or pleasure with no remorse, usually justifying or rationalizing their behavior in some way. (8) They may steal, harass others, manipulate, con, or destroy property. (9) They do not think about the consequences for or safety of themselves or others, and may suddenly change jobs, homes, or relationships, consume excessive amounts of alcohol or take illicit drugs, are socially and financially irresponsible, irritable, physically aggressive, abusive towards their spouse or partner, or polyamorous. (9) They’re extremely opinionated, self-assured, and arrogant, but can act charming, voluble, and verbally facile to get what they want. (9) ASPD can also be comorbid with impulse control, mood, anxiety, gambling, and bipolar disorder, as well as ADHD. (9) 

The cause of anti-social personality disorder is unknown, though scientists believe that genetic and environmental influences may contribute to the development of ASPD. (9) It’s more often found among 1st degree relatives of patients who also have it than in the general population. (9) Children who have been abused or neglected, or who had parents with inconsistent disciplining or parenting styles, are at increased risk of developing it. (9) 

To be diagnosed with ASPD, one must have a persistent disregard for the rights of others and the law, deceitfulness indicated by repeated lying, use of aliases, and conning for personal gain. (9) There must also be impulsivity, irritability and aggression (constantly getting into physical fights and assaulting others), recklessly disregarding the safety of self or others, constant irresponsibility, and a lack of remorse. (9) These symptoms must be present before the patient is 15 years old. (9) 

Meanwhile, borderline disorder is marked with difficulty regulating emotions, low self-esteem, mood swings, impulsivity, and relationship difficulties. (8) Symptoms of borderline disorder can also overlap with those presented in histrionic or narcissistic personality disorder and is commonly misdiagnosed as bipolar disorder. (9) Patients with borderline personality disorder often feel furious or panicky when they feel abandoned, even if it’s for something small (like being slightly late.) (9) They may change their view of a person abruptly after a period of idealization, suddenly demeaning the other person. (9) Another trait of borderline personality disorder is that they have difficulty controlling their anger, becoming disproportionately angry, for which they will feel ashamed. (9) They may often self-sabotage, dramatically change their self-image, feel empty inside, self-mutilate or attempt suicide, and may have dissociative episodes, paranoid thoughts, or psychotic symptoms (such as hallucinations.) (9) The cause of this is most linked to childhood separation from caregivers, the death of a parent, and physical or sexual abuse. (9) 

Histrionic personality disorder can be identified if the patient has intense, unstable emotions, a distorted self-image, dramatic, inappropriate, and attention-seeking behaviors, and self-esteem that’s dependent upon the approval of others. (8) They may use their physical appearance and act inappropriately in seductive or provocative ways. (8) Their emotions are persistently excessive, and rapidly shifting or shallow. (9) They are uncomfortable when they’re not the center of attention, are highly suggestible, theatrical and self-dramatizing, and interpret relationships as more intimate than they are. (9) 

Narcissistic personality disorder is like histrionic personality disorder and involves a consistent pattern of perceived superiority or grandiosity, need for praise or admiration, and a lack of empathy. (8) Narcissists have difficulty regulating their self-esteem, needing praise and affiliations with special people or institutions to maintaining their self-esteem and is more common in men than women. (9) Narcissists overestimate their abilities and exaggerate their achievements, thinking they’re superior, unique or special. (9) They are preoccupied with fantasies of great achievements and feel they should only associate with others as special as themselves to support or enhance their self-esteem. (9) Narcissistic people may respond with rage or contempt or vicious counterattacks to criticism or avoid situations where they may fail. (9) To be a diagnosed narcissist, you must have a persistent pattern of grandiosity (exaggerated, unfounded sense of their own importance), preoccupied with fantasies of unlimited achievements, belief that they are special or unique, need to be unconditionally admired, exploit others, lack empathy, envy others, and are arrogant or haughty. (9) 

Cluster C personality disorders involve severe fear and anxiety, with avoidant, obsessive-compulsive, and dependent personality disorder. (8) Avoidant personality disorder is marked by chronic feelings of inadequacy, and patients are highly sensitive to being negatively judged, avoiding social interaction for fear of rejection. (8) Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (OCPD) is marked by an extreme, consistent need for orderliness, perfectionism, and control, (8, 9) with a severe focus on rules, minute details, procedures, schedules, and lists to maintain a sense of control. (9) They repeatedly check for mistakes and pay extraordinary attention to detail, so much so that they may neglect other aspects of life. (9) They tend to be solitary in their endeavors; mistrusting others’ help and are rigid and stubborn in their activities. (9) They’re overly dedicated to work and productivity so much that leisure and relationships are neglected. (9) Time spent with friends tends to be formally organized activities and hobbies or recreational activities are viewed as important tasks requiring organization and hard work. (9) Affection is expressed in informal, stiff, or serious ways, and OCPD patients are intolerant of emotional or expressive behavior, overzealous, picky, and rigid on issues of morality, ethics, and values, applying rigid moral principles to themselves and others. (9) It’s different from OCD because OCPD patients don’t recognize the need to change. (8) 

Dependent personality disorder involves a constant excessive need to be cared for by someone, submissiveness, constant reassurance, and inability to make decisions. They people-please, and display passive or clinging behavior. (8) 

From even a cursory overview of Cluster A personality disorder, one can conclude that neither man exhibited a Cluster A personality disorder. Jesus had deep, stable relationships with many people. (3, 21) His predictions about His death, though critics have interpreted it as paranoia, were completely justified. (3) Likewise, Muhammad also had close relationships with many people and showed no pervasive paranoia. Thus, the analysis must shift to Cluster B and C disorders. 

An analysis of the symptoms of Cluster B and C disorders shows Jesus’ life does not reflect any disorder from these categories either. Though Jesus was accused of being insane by his contemporaries, (Mark 3:21-22, John 10:20) (3) His responses to these accusations in passages such as Mark 3:31-35 and Matthew 12:46-50 are rational and calm. (3) Additionally, no mentally ill or evil person would have been able to speak or behave the way Jesus did. (21) All the evidence points to Him being a well-adjusted, mature person, with His words and deed never being in conflict with each other. (21) He was faultless in conduct, and all His virtues were perfectly in line with divine perfection. (14) He was always in control of Himself, even after betrayal; (Matthew 26:53-56) (3, 18) His teachings were not that of a lunatic; (i.e. “The Sermon on the Mount”) (3, 18) and He always demonstrated a concrete understanding of His identity and mission. (John 8:23) (3, 18)  

So strong is the evidence that Jesus was not insane that even Bart Ehrman, one of the most prominent agnostic atheists in recent memory, said, “The reality is that a lot of people today who are predicting the imminent end of the world may have a few screws loose. But the kinds of expectations that Jesus held about the coming kingdom of God in a cataclysmic display of divine force were not ‘weird’ or ‘way out there’ or ‘psycho’ in his day. They were fairly common. Unless you want to say that all apocalyptic Jews were clinically crazy, I don’t think you can say Jesus was.” (Paragraph 18) (20) He continues in the next paragraph, “And he may well have thought (I think he did think) that he would be made the messiah in a future kingdom. That may have been a rather exalted view of himself, but I don’t think it makes Jesus crazy. It makes him an unusually confident apocalyptic prophet. There were others with visions of grandeur at the time. I don’t think that makes him mentally ill. It makes him a first-century apocalyptic Jew.” (Paragraph 19, sentence 7-12) (20) Christian apologist, Don Stewart, also writes “A pathology of Jesus is possible only upon the basis of a lack of acquaintance with the course and conclusions of New Testament criticism and an amateur application of the principles of the science of psychiatry.” (19) (Paragraph 25) 

Further supporting that Jesus was not insane is that Romans didn’t execute people for insanity. (19) This theory was posed by Justin Meggit, a lecturer from the University of Cambridge, in his book The Madness of King Jesus: Why was Jesus Put to Death by His Followers Were Not? that Pilate and other Romans thought Jesus was insane and was executed as a royal pretender. (19) However, this explanation is insufficient as the Romans’ standard procedure was also to execute any would-be insurgents with their leaders. (19) 

However, as with the accusations of epilepsy, Muhammad has a much harder time standing against the accusations of having some sort of personality disorder. Though the Muslim world views him as the greatest prophet in history, the universal messenger to all mankind, a perfect example of human behavior beyond reproach, sinless, but not without human failings, sent to present and confirm the monotheistic teaching preached in previous Abrahamic religions, (11, 14) history paints a different story. When one looks at the historical accounts of Muhammad’s life, we see a man whose behavior was flawed at best and utterly reprehensible at worst. 

Muhammad was born in Mecca to a man named Abdullah (who died before he was born) and Aaminah on the 12th of Rabi-al-Awwal (around the 20th or 22nd of April 571.) (10) His grandfather, Abdul Muttalib, was the one who named him and took Muhammad to the Ka’ba where he performed Aqeeqah, praying to Allah for Muhammad’s health and long life, and giving thanks for his birth. (10) Aaminah, after suckling him for the first 7-9 days of his life, sent him to be brought up in the desert to become stronger and healthier. (10) He was given to a wet nurse named Halima, who was part of the Banu Saad branch of the Hawazin tribe. (10) His childhood was eventful, as numerous people attempted to kidnap or kill him, with some saying that he would become a king otherwise. (10) He stayed with Halima for an extended time by her request, (10) but Muhammad was eventually returned to his mother around the time he was five or six years old. (10) This time with his mother would be sadly short lived, as Aamina died on the return journey from Medina at Abwa, a village near Al-Juhfa, though some believe she died at Mecca when Muhammad was about 6-8 years old. (10) 

After this, he lived happily with Abdul Muttalib and his aunts Hamzah and Safiyah, who were about his age. (10) This lasted for two years, and after Muttalib died, Muhammad was sent to live with his uncle, Abu Talib, the leader of the Hashim tribe, and his wife, Fatimah bint Asad. (11)  

From there, Muhammad became a shepherd, then a merchant, working for a wealthy woman named Khadija, who was a third cousin of Muhammad’s mother and had three children from previous marriages. (11) He married her in 595 AD at the age of 25. (11) It was during his marriage to Khadija that he would be visited by Gabriel and commanded to recite verses from Allah. (11) In response, he believed he was possessed by a demon, became suicidal and repeatedly tried to jump off a cliff according to Sahih Bukhari. (11) More suicide attempts were made when the revelations stopped. (11) 

Muhammad soon began sharing his revelations and initially gained a few followers. (11) After Abu Talib died, he fled Mecca to Medina to escape persecution from the polytheists in Mecca, who were accusing him of plagiarizing the stories of the ancients, also stealing from those of Abrahamic faiths, and claimed that he was illiterate. (11) During this time, his revelations read poetry, but alterations in the content of the verses followed Muhammad’s rising place in society. (11) The gradually became more straight forward and violent as he gained power, with these later revelations abrogating the earlier ones. (11) Once in Medina, he united the tribes there under the constitution of Medina and ordered his followers to not contact their relatives in Mecca and cut ties with non-Muslim relatives. (11)  

While going to Medina, in March 624 AD, Muhammad and about 300 converts raided a Meccan merchant caravan, which led to the Battle of Badr when the Meccans retaliated. (11) The Muslims were victorious, killing 70 Meccans and taking 70 more as prisoners for ransom. (11) Surah 33:26 celebrates this victory, saying that Allah cast terror in their hearts so the Muslims could win. (14) In 629 AD, Muhammad invaded Mecca with ten-thousand men and won the city. (11) Three years later, in 632 AD, he became infirm with severe head pain and weakness, which may have been caused by an earlier event in which he was poisoned by a Jewess after the conquest of Khaybar. (11) 

After Khadija died, Muhammad became known for being a womanizer, (11, 14) having at least nine wives by the end of his life (14) (though some say he had fifteen wives (11) and numerous concubines, including a Coptic slave named Mariyah. (11)  He was 50 when he married who was possibly his first new wife, Sauda bint Zam’ah, and married Aisha around this time, though there’s evidence that he may have married Aisha first after Khadija died. (Sahih Muslim volume 2, page 748) (14) Aisha was his favorite wife, and she was soon disturbed by Muhammad’s growing number of wives after he married his fourth wife. (14) Inevitably, his many marriages and favoritism between them caused great jealousy and dissention amongst his wives. (14)  

This causes problems for Muhammad since in Sahih Muslim volume 4, page 1260, Muhammad said he was the most like Jesus out of “the whole of mankind.” (14) He even tried to outdo Jesus in Sahih Muslim volume 4, page 1230, says that he would be “preeminent among the descendants of Adam on the Day of Resurrection” and would serve as an intercessor for mankind. (14) While polygamy and caravan raiding were common facts of life in 7th-century Arabia, Muhammad was posited as a universal prophet and guide of mankind, making him subject to absolute standards. (14) However, he never condemned those practices, which stands in contrast to his claim to be like or outdo Jesus in morality. (14) 

Furthermore, Muhammad’s wives Aisha and Zaynab bint Jahsh provide huge issues for Muhammad’s claim to be like Jesus. To start with Aisha, she was six when Muhammad married her according to the Hadiths after Muhammad allegedly had a dream about her twice in which she was drawn on a piece of silk. (1, 12) Thus, after Muhammad managed to convince her father, Abu Bakr, to go along with it, he married her and consummated the marriage when she was 9. (1, 12) She became his favorite wife, so much so that Muhammad’s other wives had to beg for equal treatment, causing dissention. (1, 12) 

This is particularly startling as by all accounts; Muhammad was a pedophile. The practice of marrying girls young, especially once they hit puberty was common in pre-Islamic Arabia, but Muslims hold that Muhammad condemned their immorality. (12) If true, this also makes him a hypocrite. To get out of this, Muslims argue that he married Aisha as a part of Allah’s plan so Aisha could help girls her age with questions about sexual ethics and morals, and so her personality and life could be shaped by Muhammad so she could serve Allah well. (12) However, on this front, Muhammad didn’t have sufficient reason for Allah to ordain the marriage since he could have simply outlawed sex with young girls so girls Aisha’s age wouldn’t have to worry about it. (12) He also could have decreed that one had to wait until puberty to marry a girl. (12) Muslims have also argued that Muhammad married her because she was a precocious girl, but hadiths do not support this, as she seemed like a normal girl and Surah 65:4 of the Quran already allows pre-pubescent marriage. (12) There are also a few hadiths that say that Muhammad had a liking for young girls. (12) One of them says, “When I took the permission of Allah’s Apostle (the blessing and peace of Allah be upon him), he asked me whether I had married a matron. He said: ‘Why hadn’t you married a virgin that would play with you, and you would play with her?’” (Paragraph 22, sentence 1-2) (12) This not only terrible for Aisha because of the effects on her health, but because Muhammad was already old, marrying Aisha doomed her to a life of widowhood since Surah 33:53 prohibits marrying his widows. (12) 

Moving on to Muhammad’s marriage to Zaynab bint Jahsh, this marriage was in direct opposition to Jesus’ teaching in Luke 16:18 and Mark 10:9 which both condemn divorce. (3, 14) Zaynab was originally the wife of Muhammad’s adopted son, Zaid. (14) Muhammad lusted after her and told his son, who divorced her, and after Zaynab’s waiting period between divorce and remarriage, Muhammad married her as recorded in Sahih Muslim 1428b. (1, 14) 

The way that Muhammad reacted to criticism and resistance is also extremely telling. Most of the individuals assassinated by Muhammad were killed for their satire against him or their challenges to his claim to be the prophet of Allah. (14) An-Nadr ibn al-Harith was assassinated by Muhammad for ridiculing the Quran and reciting Persian legends that were more beautiful than Muhammad’s recitations after the Battle of Badr. (14) 

 Ka’b ibn Ashraf was another victim of Muhammad’s. (14) He was a Jewish resident of Medina who composed satirical verses against Muhammad, using his talent in Mecca to get the Quraysh tribe to rise against Muhammad in response to the Battle of Badr. (14) Sahih Bukhari volume 4, page 168, Sahih Bukhari volume 5, page 248, Ibn Ishaq’s Sirat Rasulullah page 367, and Ibn Sa’d in Kitab al-Tabaqat al-Kabir volume 2, pages 36-37 all record Muhammad’s order for Ashraf’s death and the subsequent assassination. (14) Muhammad ordered his followers to kill Ashraf using any method necessary, including through lying and trickery. (14) Sahih Muslim volume 3, page 99 and Ibn Sa’d in Kitab al-Tabaqat al-Kabir volume 2, pages 36-37 record that Muhammad’s followers did lie to lure Ashraf into the trap that led to his murder. (14) 

Abu Rafi, the leader of the Banu Nadhir tribe was killed in Khaybar in a similar manner to Ashraf according to Sahih Bukhari volume 5, pages 253-254 and Ibn Ishaq in Sirat Rasulullah page 483. (14) Al-Harith ibn Suwayd ibn Samit and ‘Asma bint Marwan both died for satire, too. (Sirat Rasulullah pages 675-676) (14) Muhammad also allowed a follower of his named al-Zubayr, to torture a man to find out where a large sum of money was hidden. (14) When it was clear that there was nothing to be gained, Muhammad had him decapitated. (14) 

Additionally, not only did Muhammad curse the Jews, but he also cursed the Christians (Surah 9:30), the opposite of what Jesus did in Luke 6:27-28, 9:55, 23:34. (3, 14) Muhammad’s initial contact with Christians were less frequent compared to his interactions with the Jews. (14)  From his experience with the Negus of Abyssinia, he originally treated Christians more favorably, regarding them as potential friends and allies, as shown in Surah 5:85, 22:40, and 30:4. (2, 14) This soon turned into antagonism as the Christians began challenging his claims to prophethood, specifically having issues with the Quran ignores the doctrine of Jesus’ atonement on the cross, (Surah 5:54, 60) and the ubiquitousness of the name “Maryam,” which is used both for the name of Moses’ sister and Jesus’ mother. (Sahih Muslim volume 3, page 1169) (14)  

Later, during the clash with the Byzantines in Muhammad’s final years, Muhammad reviled the Christians for kufr (Surah 5:75-76) and in Sahih Muslim volume 3, page 965 and Muwatta Imam Malik 371, he so greatly hated the Jews and Christian that he commanded their expulsions. (14) As he was dying, he gave instruction to his follower, ‘Umar, to ensure the Jews would be driven out of the Arabian Peninsula. (14) 

Perhaps the bloodiest example of Muhammad’s evil is what he did to the Medinan Jews (11) after the Battle of the Ditch, (14) also known as the Battle of the Trench, which took place in 627 AD. (11) After this battle and the ensuing siege, Muhammad led a wholesale massacre of the prisoners. (Ibn Ishaq, Sirat Rasulullah page 464 and Ibn Sa’d Kitab al-Tabaqat al-Kabir volume 2 page 93) (14) Muhammad ordered the men and boys to be beheaded, and the women and young children were sold into slavery. (11) According to al-Tabari, many of the heads were personally severed by Mehammed, filling a trench as they were brought to him. (11) Wiki Islam writes: “One of the explanations given by some Arab historians and biographers for Muhammad’s treatment of the Jews of Medina is that ‘the punishment of the Medina Jews who were invited to convert and refused, perfectly exemplify the Qur’an’s tales of what happened to those who rejected the prophets of old.’” (Paragraph 24) (11)  

Muslims try to argue that this was standard procedure for military leaders, but it hardly fits into the standard of conduct that Jesus laid out. (14) Though many Old Testament prophets acted callously, Muhammad was expressly comparing himself to Jesus, who never behaved callously, much less beheaded hundreds of people. (14) From this we can see that Muhammad and his companions’ actions line up closer to the words of Jesus in John 3:19-20, 8:44, and Ephesians 5:12. (3, 14)  

By even these few events in Muhammad’s life, it’s easy to believe that he may have had a personality disorder that falls into Cluster B. Certainly, Cluster A can be ruled out since, while Sahih Bukhari 3562 describes him as being “shier than a virgin girl,” (1, 11) he did not seem to exhibit paranoia or have issues with his relationships of the type experience by those with Cluster A personality disorders. Cluster C can also be largely ruled out, with the exception of obsessive-compulsive personality disorder. Thus, it’s possible that Muhammad could have had narcissistic, borderline, anti-social, or histrionic personality disorder, with the most plausible one being borderline. From historical accounts of his life, he was constantly abandoned as a child, he was callous, didn’t respond well to criticism, was self-seeking, controlling, a womanizer, a pedophile, was suicidal, etc.  

Another theory as to why Jesus and Muhammad said the things they did is that they may have had dissociative identity disorder (DID). Dissociative identity disorder was formerly known as multiple or split personality disorder and is extremely rare, with a small U.S. study finding that it only affects 1.5% of people. (16) Typically, it’s caused by severe trauma, stressful experiences, or abuse during childhood which forces the patient to develop two or more separate personalities as a coping mechanism. (16) These personalities – known as “alters” – may have different behaviors, memories, thought patterns, expressions, ethnicities, and ways of interacting with things. (16) These alters control the patient’s behavior at different times. (16) Memories may not transfer from one personality to another, leaving gaps in the patient’s memory as personalities switch in response to different triggers. (16) Symptoms of DID begin to appear between five to ten years old and are commonly overlooked by parents, guardians, and family members, and often mistaken for other disorders such as ADHD. (16) Symptoms include feeling detached from reality, confused by what others say about your behavior, stress from not being in control, feeling like you’re watching yourself from the outside, and amnesia. (16) 

There are two forms of dissociative identity disorder, called possession and non-possession. (16) During possession, the alters or identities present as though an outside entity took control of the body, with the patient speaking or acting differently in a way that’s obvious to others. (16) In non-possession, the identities are less known to others, with patients feeling like they are having an out-of-body experience, unable to control their speech, emotions, or behaviors. (16) In both cases, the switch is unwanted or involuntary. (16) Because of this, DID is often accompanied by anxiety, delusions, depression, self-harm, suicidal ideation, and substance abuse disorder, with more than 70% of DID patients attempting suicide or self-mutilating. (16) 

Like with the other accusations of epilepsy or the existence of various personality disorders, there is no evidence from Jesus’ life, actions, or words to support His having dissociative identity disorder. From the Gospels, we know that He likely had a stable family life, had a solid understanding of who He was, understood His mission, and never seemed to switch from one identity to another. (3)  

On the other hand, Muhammad has more to support the possibly of having dissociative identity disorder. He was given away as a baby, had people trying to kidnap or kill him, was sent back to his mom, soon orphaned, raised by his grandfather until he passed, then was sent to his uncle. This could have set up the foundation for developing DID, but because of how well-timed some of his revelations were and the involuntary nature of DID, doubt can be reasonably cast on this diagnosis. For example, in Sahih Bukhari 4788, Aisha comments, “I feel that your Lord hastens in fulfilling your wishes and desires,” (1) in response to Muhammad’s revelation of Surah 33:51 (2) which helped justify his marriage to Zaynab bint Jahsh. 

Additionally, the very existence of dissociative identity disorder is widely disputed amongst doctors, with many saying that it’s not a real disorder. Thus, further doubt can be put on this diagnosis for both Jesus and Muhammad. 

However, if neither man were epileptic or insane, this leaves what’s possibly the oldest and most serious accusation against either of them: demon possession, which will be discussed in the next post.

Until next time,

M.J.

Let's break it down. My Guru, Shri #ShivarudraBalayogi, a #self-realized instantiation, a portal to #infinity, and for #Abrahamic #God people, I'm just going to remind you all that this researcher asserts that Jesus taught The #Vedas in Israel words. Booyah! #Muhammad also. That was #Krishna again.

Let's break it down. My Guru, Shri #ShivarudraBalayogi, a #self-realized instantiation, a portal to #infinity, and for #Abrahamic #God people, I'm just going to remind you all that this researcher asserts that Jesus taught The #Vedas in Israel words. Booyah! #Muhammad also. That was #Krishna again.

Let's break it down. My Guru, Shri #ShivarudraBalayogi, a #self-realized instantiation, a portal to #infinity, and for #Abrahamic #God people, I'm just going to remind you all that this researcher asserts that Jesus taught The #Vedas in Israel words. Booyah! #Muhammad also. That was #Krishna again.

"I want to see ALL the story branches"

https://piefed.social/c/historymemes/p/1977750/i-want-to-see-all-the-story-branches

Apologetics: Flippin’ Fatwa Friday – A Comparison of Claims About the Insanity of Jesus and the Insanity of Muhammad. (Part 1)

One of the many questions critics of various religions ask when evaluating the validity of the religion’s claims is the question of its founder’s mental health. If it can be proven that the founder’s claims came from delusions, then the religion risks being dismissed as the ramblings of a madman. As C.S. Lewis put it in his famous trilemma regarding Jesus, “A man who was merely a man and said the sort of things Jesus said would not a great moral teacher. He would either be a lunatic – on a level with the man who says he is a poached egg or else he would be the Devil of Hell. […] Either this man was, and is, the Son of God: or else a madman or something worse…You can shut Him up for a fool, you can spit at Him and kill Him as a demon; or you can fall at His feet and call Him Lord and God.” (Paragraph 1, sentences 3-4, 6) (17) A similar framework can be applied to Muhammad, as – like Jesus – he was accused of lunacy both by contemporaries and modern critics. Either Jesus and Muhammad were delusional but sincerely believed what they said, were charlatans, or one of them was telling the truth about who they were. Thus, this paper seeks to examine their lives to see if the accusations of insanity hold historical or psychological weight. 

To begin our investigation into if Jesus and Muhammad were insane, we must understand the various disorders that Muhammad and Jesus are believed to have had. Critics of both men have alleged based on various accounts of their lives that they could have had various mental or neurological disorders. (19) In fact, in 2012, a team of psychiatrists, behavioral psychologists, neurologists, and neuropsychiatrists from Harvard Medical School published research that suggested the development of a new diagnostic category of psychiatric disorders related to religious delusions and hyper-religiosity. (19) They claimed that Jesus, Muhammad, and others may have had anything ranging from schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, bipolar disorder, delusional disorder, delusions of grandeur, auditory-visual hallucinations, paranoia, Geschwind syndrome, or temporal lobe epilepsy. (19) Thus, we need to understand the symptoms of some of these disorders to compare them to what accounts of Jesus and Muhammad’s life may suggest. 

Because critics have long alleged that Jesus and Muhammad had epilepsy, we must understand what it is and understand its key manifestations before comparing them to the historical record. Epilepsy isn’t a mental illness, (4) but is a neurological condition that causes recurring seizures, (5) potentially leading to cognitive or psychological problems depending on its severity or if it’s left untreated. (4) It cannot be caused by volition, suggestion or hypnosis, (7) but is likely caused by genetic influences, head trauma, underlying factors in the brain, infections, injury before birth, or developmental issues. (5) Some potential triggers of epileptic fits include alcohol, flashing lights, drug use, lack of sleep, stress, dehydration, skipped meals, and illness. (5) Due to the unpredictability of epileptic seizures and the disorder’s stigmatized condition, epilepsy patients often experience poor self-esteem, discrimination, social withdrawal, and depression. (6) This was especially true in the ancient world, as Hasan Aziz writes, “The general perceptions then of those affected with epilepsy was of a tainted, incurable victim possessed by an evil spirit or devil, and the claim to Muhammad’s epilepsy was probably in response to this situation to slander him as a false prophet. Men of letters from the subsequent eras picked up these early narrations and quoted them per se without any verification, further substantiating these nonscientific works as the truth.” (Paragraph 9, sentence 3-4) (7) 

Epilepsy is diagnosed if the patient has had at least two seizures without a clear cause at least 24 hours apart. (5) In general, epileptic attacks last for a few seconds or a few minutes. (7) Symptoms vary depending on the type of seizure and how it affects different brain processes. (5) Epilepsy patients can experience staring spells, loss of awareness or consciousness, convulsions, muscle stiffness, fear and anxiety, behavioral changes, psychosis, or deja vu. (5) Seizures that cause deja vu or hallucinations usually last for a split second and lack verbal content. (7) Those that cause auditory hallucinations produce a machine-like buzzing or whistling sound. (7) Seizures can also cause repeated movements such as hand rubbing, chewing, swallowing, or walking in circles. (5) Patients usually have the same type of seizure every time they experience an epileptic fit. (5) 

On that note, there are different types of epilepsy diagnosed by what types of seizures the patient experiences and which part of the brain they affect. (5) Seizures are split into two groups with various subgroups, based on how they affect the brain. (5) Seizures that involve all areas of the brain are called generalized seizures and are further divided into absence, tonic, atonic, clonic, myclonic, and tonic-clonic seizures. (5) 

The second group of seizures are known as focal seizures and result from activity in one part of the brain, such as the temporal, frontal, or occipital lobe. (5) These seizures can be mistaken for migraines, narcolepsy, or mental illness. (5) Like with generalized seizures, these are split into two subcategories based on seizure symptoms. (5) These categories are called preserved or impaired consciousness. (5) During seizures with preserved consciousness, patients may have warning signs known as “auras.” (5) These auras may include a strange feeling in the stomach, fear, deja vu, a taste or smell, a visual effect such as steady or flashing light, color, or shape, dizziness, loss of balance, emotional changes, convulsions, tingling, dizziness, or hallucinations. (5) Seizures that impair consciousness, however, involve a change or loss of consciousness in the patient, sometimes leading to a dreamy state. (5) 

From looking at the accounts of Muhammad and Jesus’ lives; it doesn’t appear that they suffered from generalized seizures. If one is to say that either person suffered from epilepsy, they likely would have experienced focal seizures, pointing to a form of epilepsy, either affecting the frontal, occipital, or temporal lobe. Thus, symptoms from those specific seizures must be examined as well. 

Starting with occipital and frontal lobe seizures, seizures in the occipital lobe affect patients’ vision, sometimes causing hallucination or loss of some or all their vision. (5) Frontal lobe seizures, on the other hand, begin in the front of the brain and mainly affects motion. (5) Those experiencing a frontal lobe seizure may move their heads or eyes to one side, won’t respond when spoken to, may scream or laugh, extend one arm while flexing the other, or make repeated movements. (5)  

Temporal lobe seizures, however, occur in the lobes that process emotions and short-term memory. (5) They may cause a patient to lose awareness of their surroundings. (5) Temporal lobe epilepsy also brings with it a higher risk of developing psychiatric problems than in patients who have more generalized symptoms. (6) Short-term memory loss can come with it, too, potentially since these seizures impair the areas of the brain that process emotion. (4) 

Moreover, epilepsy and psychiatric disorders may have shared pathogenic mechanisms. (6) This could mean that, in some cases, the presence of psychiatric disorders may represent the premorbid phase of some epileptic syndromes due to shared neurobiological mechanisms. (6) Studies have found that epileptics have a 2-5 times increased risk of developing any psychiatric disorder with a third of patients having a lifetime psychiatric diagnosis. (6) Epilepsy can cause depression, anxiety, and suicidal thoughts and behaviors, (5) potentially from forcing specific behaviors such as maintaining regular sleep cycles, limited alcohol use, and other lifestyle changes, combined with preexisting stress, frustration, fear, and embarrassment from having seizures. (4) Data from prospective observational studies show that the relationship between epilepsy and psychiatric disorders goes both ways. (6) One study from the United Kingdom involving over 10 million subjects found that depression caused a 2.5-fold increased risk of developing epilepsy and suicide risk increased 2.9-fold even before diagnosis. (6) A meta-analysis of adults in 14 population-based studies that included over a million subjects also showed an overall prevalence of active depression in epilepsy patients of 23.1% with an increased risk of developing depression of 2.7 as compared to the general population. (6) As PubMed writes: “From a neurobiological perspective, neuroimaging studies in people with primary psychiatric conditions such as depression or schizophrenia have shown abnormalities in brain networks overlapping with those involved, for example, in temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE), particularly in the amygdala and the hippocampi.” (Paragraph 4, sentence 3) (6) 

Generalized anxiety disorder is another psychiatric issue that’s often present in epilepsy patients, with causes varying from the diagnosis, a symptom of seizures, fear stemming from the first seizure, and social isolation or rejection. (4) However, just like depression, causes of epilepsy can also contribute to anxiety symptoms. (4) One meta-analysis of 27 studies in over three thousand adults with epilepsy showed a pooled prevalence of anxiety disorders of 20.2%, with generalized anxiety disorder being the most common. (6) 

Epilepsy can also cause slowness, memory impairment, attention problems, and dementia. (4) Cognitive and intellectual problems caused by epilepsy are often related to it beginning at an early age, the number or frequency of seizures, poor seizure control, the length of the seizure, low oxygen levels, injury, infection at birth, or underlying brain lesions. (4) For young children, development can be delayed due to uncontrolled seizures, and in those with underlying cognitive problems, there are higher rates of brain abnormalities, which can result in different kinds of seizures. (4) 

Most concerningly, however, is epilepsy’s effect on psychosis. Psychiatric comorbidities are associated with premature mortality for a variety of reasons, such as an increased risk of substance or alcohol abuse, increased risk of injury, and suicidality. (6) A meta-analysis of 57 studies of psychosis and related disorders including over 40 thousand individuals showed a pooled prevalence of 5.6% in unselected individuals increasing to 7% and in those with mesial temporal lobe epilepsy having a greater risk of 7.8% compared to the general population. (6) These psychiatric symptoms are categorized as preictal, ictal, postictal, paraictal, and interictal according to their relationship with seizures. (6) 

Preictal symptoms precede a seizure and mostly occur during tonic-clonic seizures or temporal lobe epilepsy. (6) Preictal psychosis can include irritability, insomnia, and dysphoria that can last anywhere from a few hours to two days. (6) 

Ictal symptoms are manifestations of a seizure and may present as focal aware seizures. (6) These can cause nonmotor, emotional dysfunction (ictal fear or depression), and nonconvulsive status epilepticus (ictal psychosis). (6) 4% of epilepsy patients who experience complex partial seizures have religious experiences during psychosis called religious ictal seizures. (7) The symptoms of this vary, but those who experience this describe intense emotions of God’s presence, hearing his voice, feeling connected to the infinite, clairvoyance telepathy, repetition, or a visual hallucination of a religious figure. (7) Emotions felt during these events are generally indescribable. (7) There is also near total amnesia of all ictal events, and memory varies, with those events being followed by periods of sleep or blunted meditations, which distort memory, making it unreliable. (7) 

Postictal symptoms typically follow a bilateral tonic-clonic seizure but are also associated with temporal lobe epilepsy. (6) The resulting psychosis only affects about 2% of people. (6) Despite this, postictal psychosis is the most described and investigated form of psychosis and is also associated with temporal lobe epilepsy. (6) Postictal psychosis involves having florid, but brief psychotic episodes lasting hours or weeks, often described as worsening comorbid mood or anxiety disorders. (6) The onset of this psychosis is subtle, coming after 48 hours of lucid interval from the seizure and has a high mortality risk due to high suicidal ideation and violent behavior. (6)  

Paraictal symptoms involve forced normalization and behavior disturbance of acute or subacute onset. (6) This involves significant mood changes, anxiety, depersonalization or derealization, and psychogenic, nonepileptic attacks, as well as a reduction in the total number of spikes. (6) After paraictal symptoms have run their course, there can be a complete cessation of seizures for at least one week. (6) 

Finally, interictal symptoms can cause personality disorders like Geschwind syndrome characterized by obsessionality, increased philosophical or religious interests, hyposexuality, and hypergraphia. (6) Interictal symptoms – like ictal and postictal symptoms – are usually found in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy. (6) It also involves schizophrenia-like, chronic psychosis with preserved affect and without progressive cognitive deterioration. (6) Interictal symptoms can also come with interictal dysphoric disorder with chronic affective somatoform syndrome, characterized by mood swings with irritability with multiple somatic symptoms. (6) 

Now that the symptoms of epilepsy have been laid out, one can move to determining if Jesus or Muhammad had symptoms resembling epilepsy. Starting with Jesus, if it could be proven that He had epilepsy that caused Him to believe that He was hearing from God, then it would cause a massive fracture in the validity of the Christian faith. (21) However, while psychiatrists and religious scholars and writers agree that Jesus was regarded as insane, delusional, or even demon possessed by family, friends, followers, and contemporaries (Mark 3:21, John 7:20, 10:19-21) (3, 19) there is no reference of Jesus ever having epilepsy or anything resembling it. The beliefs of critics such as Jean Meslier, David Straus, Lemuel K. Washburn, Oskar Holtzmann, Henry Leffmann, Georg Lomer, Oskar Panizza, Y.V. Mints, William Hirsh, and others that Jesus had epilepsy (19) are thus woefully unfounded. 

The same cannot be said about Muhammad, however. Muhammad was considered epileptic during the Byzantine period, about 200 years after his death. (7) Since then, this diagnosis has become a great theological and philosophical debate, raising questions about the validity of his prophethood, suggesting that he pretended his fits were revelation from Allah passed on through the angel Gabriel. (7, 13, 22) This was first brought up by Byzantine monk and early Greek chronicler, Theophanes, in the 8th century who suggested that Muhammad’s revelations were epileptic episodes. (7) Western historians, theologians, orientalists and physicians such as Humphrey Prideaux, Hottinger (a Swiss philologist and theologian), John Zonaras, Gustav Weil, (who was perhaps the first to probe into the oldest traditional biographies of Muhammad) Sir William Muir, and others believed this theory. (7)  

Modern-day, eminent neurologists have also agreed with this assessment, suggesting based on the writings of these orientalists, historians, and chronologists that Muhammad had temporal lobe epilepsy. (7) Prominent American neurologists such as William Gordon Lennox and Roy Freemon made significant contributions to this debate. (7) Lennox wrote in his book Epilepsy and Related Disorders that Muhammad had temporal lobe epilepsy based on hallucinatory auras recorded by Muir, including two losses of consciousness at age 2. (7) Freemon wrote what was possibly the first article on Muhammad’s epilepsy to be published in a scientific journal. (7) He concluded that Muhammad likely had psychomotor seizures from temporal lobe epilepsy, though historical knowledge of his brain function during altered states of consciousness doesn’t allow for an unequivocal diagnosis. (7) 

Furthermore, though some incorrect or erroneous translations have been found, reliable hadiths are available to provide evidence that Muhammad was potentially epileptic. (7) Starting with possible accounts of Muhammad having epilepsy from childhood, according to Sahih al-Bukhari 7571, Muhammad had a dream that Gabriel cut open his chest, took out his organs, veins, etc., washed them, put them back, and took him to visit heaven. (1) This hadith may be related to a similar account in Sahih Muslim, which says: “It is narrated on the authority of Anas b. Malik that the Messenger of Allah said: the angels came to me and took me to the Zamzam and my heart was opened and washed with the water of Zamzam and then I was left (at my place).” (Sahih Muslim 162b) (1) This account continues in Sahih Muslim 162c in more detail, saying, “Anas b. Malik reported that Gabriel came to the Messenger of Allah while he was playing with his playmates. He took hold of him and lay him prostrate on the ground and tore open his breast and took out the heart from it and said: That was the part of Satan in thee. And then he washed it with the water of Zamzam in a golden basin and then it was joined together and restored to its place. The boys came running to his mother, i.e. his nurse, and said: Verily Muhammad has been murdered. They all rushed toward him (and found him all right) his color was changed, Anas said. I myself saw the marks of needle on his breast.” (1) 

This event, known as Shaq al-Sadar (The Opening of the Chest), happened when Muhammad was a young child, out grazing cattle with his foster brother Abdullah ibn Harith. (10) Muhammad reportedly remembered the incident, as did Abdullah, Muhammad’s other foster siblings, and the other boys present. (10) One report also alleged that Halima, Muhammad’s wet-nurse and foster mother, had a dream about Shaq al-Sadar before it happened and had tried to stop Muhammad from going out. (10)   

As one author who calls himself Silas writes regarding Shaq al-Sadar, “Here is the story told by Muhammad’s wet-nurse, related in Guillaume’s translation of Ibn Ishaw, page 72: ‘His [Muhammad’s friends] father said to me, ‘I am afraid that this child has had a stroke, so take him back to his family before the result appears. … She [Muhammad’s mother] asked me what happened and gave me no peace until I told her. When she asked if I feared a demon had possessed him, I replied that I did.” (paragraph 4, sentence 2 – paragraph 5) (13) 

Interestingly, Islamic scholars such as al-Tabari and Ibn Sa’d used “fits,” “epilepsy,” “epileptic,” “falling sickness,” or “sara’a” in their chapters about Muhammad’s life, referring to the Shaq al-Sadar. (7) Tabari specifically called it a malady; Ibn Ishaw called it a stroke, and later writers such as Hisham and Sprenger called it an epileptic fit or hysteria respectively. (7) This is significant, as epilepsy was a condition known to Arab physicians at the time, and one hadith even mentions a person with epilepsy going to Muhammad for help, as recorded by Ibn Abbas. (7) William Muir, in his book, Life of Mahomet, similarly interpreted the story of 4-year-old Muhammad having his heart cut out by two angels (as told in Katib al Wackedi) as epilepsy. (7) He also added a comment from Halima’s husband that Muhammad “had a fit (omeeb) and advised his wife to return Muhammad to his mother.” (7) 

This is not the only instance where Muhammad had an experience that appears to be like epilepsy. Accounts of Muhammad’s initial revelation and later revelation from authoritative hadiths like Sahih Bukhari and Sahih Muslim sound similar to epileptic symptoms. As written in Sahih Bukhari 4951, “Then Allah’s Messenger returned with that experience; and the muscles between his neck and shoulders were trembling till he came upon Khadija (his wife) and said, ‘Cover me!’ They covered him, and when the state of fear was over, he said to Khadija, ‘O Khadija! What is wrong with me? I was afraid that something bad might happen to me.” (1)  Sahih Bukhari 6982 also continues the story of the initial revelation, saying, ““But after a few days Waraqa died and the Divine Inspiration was also paused for a while and the Prophet became so sad as we have heard that he intended several times to throw himself from the tops of high mountains and every time he went to throw himself down, Gabriel would appear before him and say, “O Muhammad! You are indeed Allah’s messenger in truth” whereupon his heart would do as before, but when he used to reach the top of a mountain, Gabriel would appear before him and say to him what he had said before.” (1) From this account, Theophanes writes: “He had an epileptic seizure, and when his wife noticed this, she became very distressed, for she was noble and had now been joined to a man who was not only helpless but epileptic as well. He turned to conciliating her, saying, ‘I see a vision of the angel known as Gabriel, and faint and fall because I cannot bear up under the sight of him.” (paragraph 10, sentence 4-5) (7) 

Though the trembling could be explained as being caused by fear and the suicidality from depression about Waraqa’s death, that does not adequately explain other strange symptoms that came before later revelations. Muhammad’s wife, Aisha, is recorded asking Muhammad what it was like receiving revelation from Allah. (1) His response, recorded in Sahih Muslim 2333b was, ““[…] at times it comes to me like the ringing of a bell…” (1) This is statement is corroborated by Sahih Bukhari 2, which says, “Narrated Aisha: […] Al-Harith bin Hisham asked Allah’s Messenger ‘O Allah’s Messenger! How is the Divine Inspiration revealed to you?’ Allah’s Messenger replied, ‘Sometimes it is (revealed) like the ringing of a bell, this form of Inspiration is the hardest of all and then this state passes off after I have grasped what is inspired.’” (1) Sunan an-Nasa’i 933 also records this event. (1) 

Already, this is strange, but other pre-revelation symptoms include phobic states such as anxiety, sweating, palpitations, trembling, visual and auditory hallucinations, and fainting. (7) As one hadith records: “At the moment of inspiration, anxiety pressed upon the Prophet and his countenance was troubled. He fell to the ground like an inebriate, or one overcome by sleep. On the coldest day his forehead would be bedewed with large drops of perspiration…To outward appearance inspiration descended unexpectedly, without any previous warning to the Prophet.” (paragraph 18, sentence 3-5) (7) Once again, Sahih Bukhari 2 also corroborates this, with Aisha saying, “Verily I saw the Prophet being inspired divinely on a very cold day and noticed that sweat dropping from his forehead (as the Inspiration was over).” (1) 

Muslim apologists argue that these pre-revelation symptoms are simply general discomfort that is to be expected during divine-to-human transfer. (7) However, despite the evidence so closely mirrors temporal-lobe epileptic auras that it’s no surprise that Ibn Sa’d devoted an entire chapter in Tabqat-al-Kabir to the symptoms associated with revelations, from which Freemon based his conclusions that Muhammad had temporal lobe epilepsy. (7) From this, Prideaux’s theory that Muhammad had epileptic fits that he used to compile chapters (surahs) of the Quran becomes plausible. (7)  

In response to this, Muslims have several arguments to the contrary. On the Shaq al-Sadar, Hasan Aziz says, “From neurological or any other perspective, this episode extraordinaire of a child surviving splitting open of his chest or belly to be closed within minutes and later relating the details himself or witnessed by his foster [sibling] is probably paranormal and cannot be accepted as epilepsy or any human happening.” (Paragraph 14, sentence 6) (7) Aziz also writes concerning the physical accompaniments of Muhammad’s revelations, quote, “On some occasions at least, there were some physical accompaniments. He would be gripped by a feeling of pain, and in his ears, there would be a noise like the reverberation of a bell. Even on a very cold day the bystanders would see great pearls of sweat on his forehead as the revelation descended upon him. Such accounts led some Western critics to suggest that he had epilepsy, but there are no real grounds for such a view. Epilepsy leads to physical and mental degeneration, and there are no signs of that in Muhammad; on the contrary, he was in full possession of his faculties to the very end of life.” (paragraph 21, sentence 3-7) (7)  

Another point that Aziz makes is that after every pre-revelation event, there was a Quranic revelation. (7) He argues that had it been a result of an epileptic attack, the revelations should not have been remembered as epileptic attacks are commonly followed by stupor, confusion, and amnesia. (7) It’s also reported in some hadiths that a buzzing could be heard by others before Muhammad went into one of his revelatory swoons, further refuting the idea that he was simply experiencing epileptic hallucinations. (7) 

Further arguments against the idea that Muhammad had epilepsy are that some of the translations of the hadiths are flawed. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, a scholar of the Arabic language, worked on validating translations of the hadiths, finding inaccuracies and mistranslations. (7) When reviewing Muir’s translation of the Shaq al-Sadar, he pointed out that Muir’s translation of “omeeb” was incorrect, as it’s a word found in no Arabic lexicon and had no meaning. (7) The actual word was oseeb, which has many connotations that express dismay or affliction. (7)  Khan also commented on the per se translation of Abilfeda’s work into English by Dr. Edward Pococke, saying that his work was flawed as he added “hypochondriacal” to make the sentence flow more logically and grammatically in Latin, but changed the meaning of the entire sentence. (7) From there, since Prideaux had based his conclusions on Pococke’s work, Khan believed that Prideaux had reached a faulty conclusion from a faulty translation. (7) English historian Edward Gibbon also rejected Theophanes’ statements about Muhammad having epilepsy, calling them “an absurd calumny of the Greeks.” (7) Thomas Carlyle and William Montgomery Watts similarly rejected it, with Carlyle going so far as to paint Muhammad as a hero. (7)  

However, though epilepsy could be, at best a plausible explanation for Muhammad’s behavior, there are other explanations to take into account, such as his mental health, which will be discussed in part two.

Until next time,

M.J.

Apologetics: Flippin’ Fatwa Friday – A Comparison of Claims About the Insanity of Jesus and the Insanity of Muhammad. (Part 1)

One of the many questions critics of various religions ask when evaluating the validity of the religion’s claims is the question of its founder’s mental health. If it can be proven that the founder’s claims came from delusions, then the religion risks being dismissed as the ramblings of a madman. As C.S. Lewis put it in his famous trilemma regarding Jesus, “A man who was merely a man and said the sort of things Jesus said would not a great moral teacher. He would either be a lunatic – on a level with the man who says he is a poached egg or else he would be the Devil of Hell. […] Either this man was, and is, the Son of God: or else a madman or something worse…You can shut Him up for a fool, you can spit at Him and kill Him as a demon; or you can fall at His feet and call Him Lord and God.” (Paragraph 1, sentences 3-4, 6) (17) A similar framework can be applied to Muhammad, as – like Jesus – he was accused of lunacy both by contemporaries and modern critics. Either Jesus and Muhammad were delusional but sincerely believed what they said, were charlatans, or one of them was telling the truth about who they were. Thus, this paper seeks to examine their lives to see if the accusations of insanity hold historical or psychological weight. 

To begin our investigation into if Jesus and Muhammad were insane, we must understand the various disorders that Muhammad and Jesus are believed to have had. Critics of both men have alleged based on various accounts of their lives that they could have had various mental or neurological disorders. (19) In fact, in 2012, a team of psychiatrists, behavioral psychologists, neurologists, and neuropsychiatrists from Harvard Medical School published research that suggested the development of a new diagnostic category of psychiatric disorders related to religious delusions and hyper-religiosity. (19) They claimed that Jesus, Muhammad, and others may have had anything ranging from schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, bipolar disorder, delusional disorder, delusions of grandeur, auditory-visual hallucinations, paranoia, Geschwind syndrome, or temporal lobe epilepsy. (19) Thus, we need to understand the symptoms of some of these disorders to compare them to what accounts of Jesus and Muhammad’s life may suggest. 

Because critics have long alleged that Jesus and Muhammad had epilepsy, we must understand what it is and understand its key manifestations before comparing them to the historical record. Epilepsy isn’t a mental illness, (4) but is a neurological condition that causes recurring seizures, (5) potentially leading to cognitive or psychological problems depending on its severity or if it’s left untreated. (4) It cannot be caused by volition, suggestion or hypnosis, (7) but is likely caused by genetic influences, head trauma, underlying factors in the brain, infections, injury before birth, or developmental issues. (5) Some potential triggers of epileptic fits include alcohol, flashing lights, drug use, lack of sleep, stress, dehydration, skipped meals, and illness. (5) Due to the unpredictability of epileptic seizures and the disorder’s stigmatized condition, epilepsy patients often experience poor self-esteem, discrimination, social withdrawal, and depression. (6) This was especially true in the ancient world, as Hasan Aziz writes, “The general perceptions then of those affected with epilepsy was of a tainted, incurable victim possessed by an evil spirit or devil, and the claim to Muhammad’s epilepsy was probably in response to this situation to slander him as a false prophet. Men of letters from the subsequent eras picked up these early narrations and quoted them per se without any verification, further substantiating these nonscientific works as the truth.” (Paragraph 9, sentence 3-4) (7) 

Epilepsy is diagnosed if the patient has had at least two seizures without a clear cause at least 24 hours apart. (5) In general, epileptic attacks last for a few seconds or a few minutes. (7) Symptoms vary depending on the type of seizure and how it affects different brain processes. (5) Epilepsy patients can experience staring spells, loss of awareness or consciousness, convulsions, muscle stiffness, fear and anxiety, behavioral changes, psychosis, or deja vu. (5) Seizures that cause deja vu or hallucinations usually last for a split second and lack verbal content. (7) Those that cause auditory hallucinations produce a machine-like buzzing or whistling sound. (7) Seizures can also cause repeated movements such as hand rubbing, chewing, swallowing, or walking in circles. (5) Patients usually have the same type of seizure every time they experience an epileptic fit. (5) 

On that note, there are different types of epilepsy diagnosed by what types of seizures the patient experiences and which part of the brain they affect. (5) Seizures are split into two groups with various subgroups, based on how they affect the brain. (5) Seizures that involve all areas of the brain are called generalized seizures and are further divided into absence, tonic, atonic, clonic, myclonic, and tonic-clonic seizures. (5) 

The second group of seizures are known as focal seizures and result from activity in one part of the brain, such as the temporal, frontal, or occipital lobe. (5) These seizures can be mistaken for migraines, narcolepsy, or mental illness. (5) Like with generalized seizures, these are split into two subcategories based on seizure symptoms. (5) These categories are called preserved or impaired consciousness. (5) During seizures with preserved consciousness, patients may have warning signs known as “auras.” (5) These auras may include a strange feeling in the stomach, fear, deja vu, a taste or smell, a visual effect such as steady or flashing light, color, or shape, dizziness, loss of balance, emotional changes, convulsions, tingling, dizziness, or hallucinations. (5) Seizures that impair consciousness, however, involve a change or loss of consciousness in the patient, sometimes leading to a dreamy state. (5) 

From looking at the accounts of Muhammad and Jesus’ lives; it doesn’t appear that they suffered from generalized seizures. If one is to say that either person suffered from epilepsy, they likely would have experienced focal seizures, pointing to a form of epilepsy, either affecting the frontal, occipital, or temporal lobe. Thus, symptoms from those specific seizures must be examined as well. 

Starting with occipital and frontal lobe seizures, seizures in the occipital lobe affect patients’ vision, sometimes causing hallucination or loss of some or all their vision. (5) Frontal lobe seizures, on the other hand, begin in the front of the brain and mainly affects motion. (5) Those experiencing a frontal lobe seizure may move their heads or eyes to one side, won’t respond when spoken to, may scream or laugh, extend one arm while flexing the other, or make repeated movements. (5)  

Temporal lobe seizures, however, occur in the lobes that process emotions and short-term memory. (5) They may cause a patient to lose awareness of their surroundings. (5) Temporal lobe epilepsy also brings with it a higher risk of developing psychiatric problems than in patients who have more generalized symptoms. (6) Short-term memory loss can come with it, too, potentially since these seizures impair the areas of the brain that process emotion. (4) 

Moreover, epilepsy and psychiatric disorders may have shared pathogenic mechanisms. (6) This could mean that, in some cases, the presence of psychiatric disorders may represent the premorbid phase of some epileptic syndromes due to shared neurobiological mechanisms. (6) Studies have found that epileptics have a 2-5 times increased risk of developing any psychiatric disorder with a third of patients having a lifetime psychiatric diagnosis. (6) Epilepsy can cause depression, anxiety, and suicidal thoughts and behaviors, (5) potentially from forcing specific behaviors such as maintaining regular sleep cycles, limited alcohol use, and other lifestyle changes, combined with preexisting stress, frustration, fear, and embarrassment from having seizures. (4) Data from prospective observational studies show that the relationship between epilepsy and psychiatric disorders goes both ways. (6) One study from the United Kingdom involving over 10 million subjects found that depression caused a 2.5-fold increased risk of developing epilepsy and suicide risk increased 2.9-fold even before diagnosis. (6) A meta-analysis of adults in 14 population-based studies that included over a million subjects also showed an overall prevalence of active depression in epilepsy patients of 23.1% with an increased risk of developing depression of 2.7 as compared to the general population. (6) As PubMed writes: “From a neurobiological perspective, neuroimaging studies in people with primary psychiatric conditions such as depression or schizophrenia have shown abnormalities in brain networks overlapping with those involved, for example, in temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE), particularly in the amygdala and the hippocampi.” (Paragraph 4, sentence 3) (6) 

Generalized anxiety disorder is another psychiatric issue that’s often present in epilepsy patients, with causes varying from the diagnosis, a symptom of seizures, fear stemming from the first seizure, and social isolation or rejection. (4) However, just like depression, causes of epilepsy can also contribute to anxiety symptoms. (4) One meta-analysis of 27 studies in over three thousand adults with epilepsy showed a pooled prevalence of anxiety disorders of 20.2%, with generalized anxiety disorder being the most common. (6) 

Epilepsy can also cause slowness, memory impairment, attention problems, and dementia. (4) Cognitive and intellectual problems caused by epilepsy are often related to it beginning at an early age, the number or frequency of seizures, poor seizure control, the length of the seizure, low oxygen levels, injury, infection at birth, or underlying brain lesions. (4) For young children, development can be delayed due to uncontrolled seizures, and in those with underlying cognitive problems, there are higher rates of brain abnormalities, which can result in different kinds of seizures. (4) 

Most concerningly, however, is epilepsy’s effect on psychosis. Psychiatric comorbidities are associated with premature mortality for a variety of reasons, such as an increased risk of substance or alcohol abuse, increased risk of injury, and suicidality. (6) A meta-analysis of 57 studies of psychosis and related disorders including over 40 thousand individuals showed a pooled prevalence of 5.6% in unselected individuals increasing to 7% and in those with mesial temporal lobe epilepsy having a greater risk of 7.8% compared to the general population. (6) These psychiatric symptoms are categorized as preictal, ictal, postictal, paraictal, and interictal according to their relationship with seizures. (6) 

Preictal symptoms precede a seizure and mostly occur during tonic-clonic seizures or temporal lobe epilepsy. (6) Preictal psychosis can include irritability, insomnia, and dysphoria that can last anywhere from a few hours to two days. (6) 

Ictal symptoms are manifestations of a seizure and may present as focal aware seizures. (6) These can cause nonmotor, emotional dysfunction (ictal fear or depression), and nonconvulsive status epilepticus (ictal psychosis). (6) 4% of epilepsy patients who experience complex partial seizures have religious experiences during psychosis called religious ictal seizures. (7) The symptoms of this vary, but those who experience this describe intense emotions of God’s presence, hearing his voice, feeling connected to the infinite, clairvoyance telepathy, repetition, or a visual hallucination of a religious figure. (7) Emotions felt during these events are generally indescribable. (7) There is also near total amnesia of all ictal events, and memory varies, with those events being followed by periods of sleep or blunted meditations, which distort memory, making it unreliable. (7) 

Postictal symptoms typically follow a bilateral tonic-clonic seizure but are also associated with temporal lobe epilepsy. (6) The resulting psychosis only affects about 2% of people. (6) Despite this, postictal psychosis is the most described and investigated form of psychosis and is also associated with temporal lobe epilepsy. (6) Postictal psychosis involves having florid, but brief psychotic episodes lasting hours or weeks, often described as worsening comorbid mood or anxiety disorders. (6) The onset of this psychosis is subtle, coming after 48 hours of lucid interval from the seizure and has a high mortality risk due to high suicidal ideation and violent behavior. (6)  

Paraictal symptoms involve forced normalization and behavior disturbance of acute or subacute onset. (6) This involves significant mood changes, anxiety, depersonalization or derealization, and psychogenic, nonepileptic attacks, as well as a reduction in the total number of spikes. (6) After paraictal symptoms have run their course, there can be a complete cessation of seizures for at least one week. (6) 

Finally, interictal symptoms can cause personality disorders like Geschwind syndrome characterized by obsessionality, increased philosophical or religious interests, hyposexuality, and hypergraphia. (6) Interictal symptoms – like ictal and postictal symptoms – are usually found in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy. (6) It also involves schizophrenia-like, chronic psychosis with preserved affect and without progressive cognitive deterioration. (6) Interictal symptoms can also come with interictal dysphoric disorder with chronic affective somatoform syndrome, characterized by mood swings with irritability with multiple somatic symptoms. (6) 

Now that the symptoms of epilepsy have been laid out, one can move to determining if Jesus or Muhammad had symptoms resembling epilepsy. Starting with Jesus, if it could be proven that He had epilepsy that caused Him to believe that He was hearing from God, then it would cause a massive fracture in the validity of the Christian faith. (21) However, while psychiatrists and religious scholars and writers agree that Jesus was regarded as insane, delusional, or even demon possessed by family, friends, followers, and contemporaries (Mark 3:21, John 7:20, 10:19-21) (3, 19) there is no reference of Jesus ever having epilepsy or anything resembling it. The beliefs of critics such as Jean Meslier, David Straus, Lemuel K. Washburn, Oskar Holtzmann, Henry Leffmann, Georg Lomer, Oskar Panizza, Y.V. Mints, William Hirsh, and others that Jesus had epilepsy (19) are thus woefully unfounded. 

The same cannot be said about Muhammad, however. Muhammad was considered epileptic during the Byzantine period, about 200 years after his death. (7) Since then, this diagnosis has become a great theological and philosophical debate, raising questions about the validity of his prophethood, suggesting that he pretended his fits were revelation from Allah passed on through the angel Gabriel. (7, 13, 22) This was first brought up by Byzantine monk and early Greek chronicler, Theophanes, in the 8th century who suggested that Muhammad’s revelations were epileptic episodes. (7) Western historians, theologians, orientalists and physicians such as Humphrey Prideaux, Hottinger (a Swiss philologist and theologian), John Zonaras, Gustav Weil, (who was perhaps the first to probe into the oldest traditional biographies of Muhammad) Sir William Muir, and others believed this theory. (7)  

Modern-day, eminent neurologists have also agreed with this assessment, suggesting based on the writings of these orientalists, historians, and chronologists that Muhammad had temporal lobe epilepsy. (7) Prominent American neurologists such as William Gordon Lennox and Roy Freemon made significant contributions to this debate. (7) Lennox wrote in his book Epilepsy and Related Disorders that Muhammad had temporal lobe epilepsy based on hallucinatory auras recorded by Muir, including two losses of consciousness at age 2. (7) Freemon wrote what was possibly the first article on Muhammad’s epilepsy to be published in a scientific journal. (7) He concluded that Muhammad likely had psychomotor seizures from temporal lobe epilepsy, though historical knowledge of his brain function during altered states of consciousness doesn’t allow for an unequivocal diagnosis. (7) 

Furthermore, though some incorrect or erroneous translations have been found, reliable hadiths are available to provide evidence that Muhammad was potentially epileptic. (7) Starting with possible accounts of Muhammad having epilepsy from childhood, according to Sahih al-Bukhari 7571, Muhammad had a dream that Gabriel cut open his chest, took out his organs, veins, etc., washed them, put them back, and took him to visit heaven. (1) This hadith may be related to a similar account in Sahih Muslim, which says: “It is narrated on the authority of Anas b. Malik that the Messenger of Allah said: the angels came to me and took me to the Zamzam and my heart was opened and washed with the water of Zamzam and then I was left (at my place).” (Sahih Muslim 162b) (1) This account continues in Sahih Muslim 162c in more detail, saying, “Anas b. Malik reported that Gabriel came to the Messenger of Allah while he was playing with his playmates. He took hold of him and lay him prostrate on the ground and tore open his breast and took out the heart from it and said: That was the part of Satan in thee. And then he washed it with the water of Zamzam in a golden basin and then it was joined together and restored to its place. The boys came running to his mother, i.e. his nurse, and said: Verily Muhammad has been murdered. They all rushed toward him (and found him all right) his color was changed, Anas said. I myself saw the marks of needle on his breast.” (1) 

This event, known as Shaq al-Sadar (The Opening of the Chest), happened when Muhammad was a young child, out grazing cattle with his foster brother Abdullah ibn Harith. (10) Muhammad reportedly remembered the incident, as did Abdullah, Muhammad’s other foster siblings, and the other boys present. (10) One report also alleged that Halima, Muhammad’s wet-nurse and foster mother, had a dream about Shaq al-Sadar before it happened and had tried to stop Muhammad from going out. (10)   

As one author who calls himself Silas writes regarding Shaq al-Sadar, “Here is the story told by Muhammad’s wet-nurse, related in Guillaume’s translation of Ibn Ishaw, page 72: ‘His [Muhammad’s friends] father said to me, ‘I am afraid that this child has had a stroke, so take him back to his family before the result appears. … She [Muhammad’s mother] asked me what happened and gave me no peace until I told her. When she asked if I feared a demon had possessed him, I replied that I did.” (paragraph 4, sentence 2 – paragraph 5) (13) 

Interestingly, Islamic scholars such as al-Tabari and Ibn Sa’d used “fits,” “epilepsy,” “epileptic,” “falling sickness,” or “sara’a” in their chapters about Muhammad’s life, referring to the Shaq al-Sadar. (7) Tabari specifically called it a malady; Ibn Ishaw called it a stroke, and later writers such as Hisham and Sprenger called it an epileptic fit or hysteria respectively. (7) This is significant, as epilepsy was a condition known to Arab physicians at the time, and one hadith even mentions a person with epilepsy going to Muhammad for help, as recorded by Ibn Abbas. (7) William Muir, in his book, Life of Mahomet, similarly interpreted the story of 4-year-old Muhammad having his heart cut out by two angels (as told in Katib al Wackedi) as epilepsy. (7) He also added a comment from Halima’s husband that Muhammad “had a fit (omeeb) and advised his wife to return Muhammad to his mother.” (7) 

This is not the only instance where Muhammad had an experience that appears to be like epilepsy. Accounts of Muhammad’s initial revelation and later revelation from authoritative hadiths like Sahih Bukhari and Sahih Muslim sound similar to epileptic symptoms. As written in Sahih Bukhari 4951, “Then Allah’s Messenger returned with that experience; and the muscles between his neck and shoulders were trembling till he came upon Khadija (his wife) and said, ‘Cover me!’ They covered him, and when the state of fear was over, he said to Khadija, ‘O Khadija! What is wrong with me? I was afraid that something bad might happen to me.” (1)  Sahih Bukhari 6982 also continues the story of the initial revelation, saying, ““But after a few days Waraqa died and the Divine Inspiration was also paused for a while and the Prophet became so sad as we have heard that he intended several times to throw himself from the tops of high mountains and every time he went to throw himself down, Gabriel would appear before him and say, “O Muhammad! You are indeed Allah’s messenger in truth” whereupon his heart would do as before, but when he used to reach the top of a mountain, Gabriel would appear before him and say to him what he had said before.” (1) From this account, Theophanes writes: “He had an epileptic seizure, and when his wife noticed this, she became very distressed, for she was noble and had now been joined to a man who was not only helpless but epileptic as well. He turned to conciliating her, saying, ‘I see a vision of the angel known as Gabriel, and faint and fall because I cannot bear up under the sight of him.” (paragraph 10, sentence 4-5) (7) 

Though the trembling could be explained as being caused by fear and the suicidality from depression about Waraqa’s death, that does not adequately explain other strange symptoms that came before later revelations. Muhammad’s wife, Aisha, is recorded asking Muhammad what it was like receiving revelation from Allah. (1) His response, recorded in Sahih Muslim 2333b was, ““[…] at times it comes to me like the ringing of a bell…” (1) This is statement is corroborated by Sahih Bukhari 2, which says, “Narrated Aisha: […] Al-Harith bin Hisham asked Allah’s Messenger ‘O Allah’s Messenger! How is the Divine Inspiration revealed to you?’ Allah’s Messenger replied, ‘Sometimes it is (revealed) like the ringing of a bell, this form of Inspiration is the hardest of all and then this state passes off after I have grasped what is inspired.’” (1) Sunan an-Nasa’i 933 also records this event. (1) 

Already, this is strange, but other pre-revelation symptoms include phobic states such as anxiety, sweating, palpitations, trembling, visual and auditory hallucinations, and fainting. (7) As one hadith records: “At the moment of inspiration, anxiety pressed upon the Prophet and his countenance was troubled. He fell to the ground like an inebriate, or one overcome by sleep. On the coldest day his forehead would be bedewed with large drops of perspiration…To outward appearance inspiration descended unexpectedly, without any previous warning to the Prophet.” (paragraph 18, sentence 3-5) (7) Once again, Sahih Bukhari 2 also corroborates this, with Aisha saying, “Verily I saw the Prophet being inspired divinely on a very cold day and noticed that sweat dropping from his forehead (as the Inspiration was over).” (1) 

Muslim apologists argue that these pre-revelation symptoms are simply general discomfort that is to be expected during divine-to-human transfer. (7) However, despite the evidence so closely mirrors temporal-lobe epileptic auras that it’s no surprise that Ibn Sa’d devoted an entire chapter in Tabqat-al-Kabir to the symptoms associated with revelations, from which Freemon based his conclusions that Muhammad had temporal lobe epilepsy. (7) From this, Prideaux’s theory that Muhammad had epileptic fits that he used to compile chapters (surahs) of the Quran becomes plausible. (7)  

In response to this, Muslims have several arguments to the contrary. On the Shaq al-Sadar, Hasan Aziz says, “From neurological or any other perspective, this episode extraordinaire of a child surviving splitting open of his chest or belly to be closed within minutes and later relating the details himself or witnessed by his foster [sibling] is probably paranormal and cannot be accepted as epilepsy or any human happening.” (Paragraph 14, sentence 6) (7) Aziz also writes concerning the physical accompaniments of Muhammad’s revelations, quote, “On some occasions at least, there were some physical accompaniments. He would be gripped by a feeling of pain, and in his ears, there would be a noise like the reverberation of a bell. Even on a very cold day the bystanders would see great pearls of sweat on his forehead as the revelation descended upon him. Such accounts led some Western critics to suggest that he had epilepsy, but there are no real grounds for such a view. Epilepsy leads to physical and mental degeneration, and there are no signs of that in Muhammad; on the contrary, he was in full possession of his faculties to the very end of life.” (paragraph 21, sentence 3-7) (7)  

Another point that Aziz makes is that after every pre-revelation event, there was a Quranic revelation. (7) He argues that had it been a result of an epileptic attack, the revelations should not have been remembered as epileptic attacks are commonly followed by stupor, confusion, and amnesia. (7) It’s also reported in some hadiths that a buzzing could be heard by others before Muhammad went into one of his revelatory swoons, further refuting the idea that he was simply experiencing epileptic hallucinations. (7) 

Further arguments against the idea that Muhammad had epilepsy are that some of the translations of the hadiths are flawed. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, a scholar of the Arabic language, worked on validating translations of the hadiths, finding inaccuracies and mistranslations. (7) When reviewing Muir’s translation of the Shaq al-Sadar, he pointed out that Muir’s translation of “omeeb” was incorrect, as it’s a word found in no Arabic lexicon and had no meaning. (7) The actual word was oseeb, which has many connotations that express dismay or affliction. (7)  Khan also commented on the per se translation of Abilfeda’s work into English by Dr. Edward Pococke, saying that his work was flawed as he added “hypochondriacal” to make the sentence flow more logically and grammatically in Latin, but changed the meaning of the entire sentence. (7) From there, since Prideaux had based his conclusions on Pococke’s work, Khan believed that Prideaux had reached a faulty conclusion from a faulty translation. (7) English historian Edward Gibbon also rejected Theophanes’ statements about Muhammad having epilepsy, calling them “an absurd calumny of the Greeks.” (7) Thomas Carlyle and William Montgomery Watts similarly rejected it, with Carlyle going so far as to paint Muhammad as a hero. (7)  

However, though epilepsy could be, at best a plausible explanation for Muhammad’s behavior, there are other explanations to take into account, such as his mental health, which will be discussed in part two.

Until next time,

M.J.

Apologetics: Flippin’ Fatwa Friday – A Comparison of Claims About the Insanity of Jesus and the Insanity of Muhammad. (Part 1)

One of the many questions critics of various religions ask when evaluating the validity of the religion’s claims is the question of its founder’s mental health. If it can be proven that the founder’s claims came from delusions, then the religion risks being dismissed as the ramblings of a madman. As C.S. Lewis put it in his famous trilemma regarding Jesus, “A man who was merely a man and said the sort of things Jesus said would not a great moral teacher. He would either be a lunatic – on a level with the man who says he is a poached egg or else he would be the Devil of Hell. […] Either this man was, and is, the Son of God: or else a madman or something worse…You can shut Him up for a fool, you can spit at Him and kill Him as a demon; or you can fall at His feet and call Him Lord and God.” (Paragraph 1, sentences 3-4, 6) (17) A similar framework can be applied to Muhammad, as – like Jesus – he was accused of lunacy both by contemporaries and modern critics. Either Jesus and Muhammad were delusional but sincerely believed what they said, were charlatans, or one of them was telling the truth about who they were. Thus, this paper seeks to examine their lives to see if the accusations of insanity hold historical or psychological weight. 

To begin our investigation into if Jesus and Muhammad were insane, we must understand the various disorders that Muhammad and Jesus are believed to have had. Critics of both men have alleged based on various accounts of their lives that they could have had various mental or neurological disorders. (19) In fact, in 2012, a team of psychiatrists, behavioral psychologists, neurologists, and neuropsychiatrists from Harvard Medical School published research that suggested the development of a new diagnostic category of psychiatric disorders related to religious delusions and hyper-religiosity. (19) They claimed that Jesus, Muhammad, and others may have had anything ranging from schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, bipolar disorder, delusional disorder, delusions of grandeur, auditory-visual hallucinations, paranoia, Geschwind syndrome, or temporal lobe epilepsy. (19) Thus, we need to understand the symptoms of some of these disorders to compare them to what accounts of Jesus and Muhammad’s life may suggest. 

Because critics have long alleged that Jesus and Muhammad had epilepsy, we must understand what it is and understand its key manifestations before comparing them to the historical record. Epilepsy isn’t a mental illness, (4) but is a neurological condition that causes recurring seizures, (5) potentially leading to cognitive or psychological problems depending on its severity or if it’s left untreated. (4) It cannot be caused by volition, suggestion or hypnosis, (7) but is likely caused by genetic influences, head trauma, underlying factors in the brain, infections, injury before birth, or developmental issues. (5) Some potential triggers of epileptic fits include alcohol, flashing lights, drug use, lack of sleep, stress, dehydration, skipped meals, and illness. (5) Due to the unpredictability of epileptic seizures and the disorder’s stigmatized condition, epilepsy patients often experience poor self-esteem, discrimination, social withdrawal, and depression. (6) This was especially true in the ancient world, as Hasan Aziz writes, “The general perceptions then of those affected with epilepsy was of a tainted, incurable victim possessed by an evil spirit or devil, and the claim to Muhammad’s epilepsy was probably in response to this situation to slander him as a false prophet. Men of letters from the subsequent eras picked up these early narrations and quoted them per se without any verification, further substantiating these nonscientific works as the truth.” (Paragraph 9, sentence 3-4) (7) 

Epilepsy is diagnosed if the patient has had at least two seizures without a clear cause at least 24 hours apart. (5) In general, epileptic attacks last for a few seconds or a few minutes. (7) Symptoms vary depending on the type of seizure and how it affects different brain processes. (5) Epilepsy patients can experience staring spells, loss of awareness or consciousness, convulsions, muscle stiffness, fear and anxiety, behavioral changes, psychosis, or deja vu. (5) Seizures that cause deja vu or hallucinations usually last for a split second and lack verbal content. (7) Those that cause auditory hallucinations produce a machine-like buzzing or whistling sound. (7) Seizures can also cause repeated movements such as hand rubbing, chewing, swallowing, or walking in circles. (5) Patients usually have the same type of seizure every time they experience an epileptic fit. (5) 

On that note, there are different types of epilepsy diagnosed by what types of seizures the patient experiences and which part of the brain they affect. (5) Seizures are split into two groups with various subgroups, based on how they affect the brain. (5) Seizures that involve all areas of the brain are called generalized seizures and are further divided into absence, tonic, atonic, clonic, myclonic, and tonic-clonic seizures. (5) 

The second group of seizures are known as focal seizures and result from activity in one part of the brain, such as the temporal, frontal, or occipital lobe. (5) These seizures can be mistaken for migraines, narcolepsy, or mental illness. (5) Like with generalized seizures, these are split into two subcategories based on seizure symptoms. (5) These categories are called preserved or impaired consciousness. (5) During seizures with preserved consciousness, patients may have warning signs known as “auras.” (5) These auras may include a strange feeling in the stomach, fear, deja vu, a taste or smell, a visual effect such as steady or flashing light, color, or shape, dizziness, loss of balance, emotional changes, convulsions, tingling, dizziness, or hallucinations. (5) Seizures that impair consciousness, however, involve a change or loss of consciousness in the patient, sometimes leading to a dreamy state. (5) 

From looking at the accounts of Muhammad and Jesus’ lives; it doesn’t appear that they suffered from generalized seizures. If one is to say that either person suffered from epilepsy, they likely would have experienced focal seizures, pointing to a form of epilepsy, either affecting the frontal, occipital, or temporal lobe. Thus, symptoms from those specific seizures must be examined as well. 

Starting with occipital and frontal lobe seizures, seizures in the occipital lobe affect patients’ vision, sometimes causing hallucination or loss of some or all their vision. (5) Frontal lobe seizures, on the other hand, begin in the front of the brain and mainly affects motion. (5) Those experiencing a frontal lobe seizure may move their heads or eyes to one side, won’t respond when spoken to, may scream or laugh, extend one arm while flexing the other, or make repeated movements. (5)  

Temporal lobe seizures, however, occur in the lobes that process emotions and short-term memory. (5) They may cause a patient to lose awareness of their surroundings. (5) Temporal lobe epilepsy also brings with it a higher risk of developing psychiatric problems than in patients who have more generalized symptoms. (6) Short-term memory loss can come with it, too, potentially since these seizures impair the areas of the brain that process emotion. (4) 

Moreover, epilepsy and psychiatric disorders may have shared pathogenic mechanisms. (6) This could mean that, in some cases, the presence of psychiatric disorders may represent the premorbid phase of some epileptic syndromes due to shared neurobiological mechanisms. (6) Studies have found that epileptics have a 2-5 times increased risk of developing any psychiatric disorder with a third of patients having a lifetime psychiatric diagnosis. (6) Epilepsy can cause depression, anxiety, and suicidal thoughts and behaviors, (5) potentially from forcing specific behaviors such as maintaining regular sleep cycles, limited alcohol use, and other lifestyle changes, combined with preexisting stress, frustration, fear, and embarrassment from having seizures. (4) Data from prospective observational studies show that the relationship between epilepsy and psychiatric disorders goes both ways. (6) One study from the United Kingdom involving over 10 million subjects found that depression caused a 2.5-fold increased risk of developing epilepsy and suicide risk increased 2.9-fold even before diagnosis. (6) A meta-analysis of adults in 14 population-based studies that included over a million subjects also showed an overall prevalence of active depression in epilepsy patients of 23.1% with an increased risk of developing depression of 2.7 as compared to the general population. (6) As PubMed writes: “From a neurobiological perspective, neuroimaging studies in people with primary psychiatric conditions such as depression or schizophrenia have shown abnormalities in brain networks overlapping with those involved, for example, in temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE), particularly in the amygdala and the hippocampi.” (Paragraph 4, sentence 3) (6) 

Generalized anxiety disorder is another psychiatric issue that’s often present in epilepsy patients, with causes varying from the diagnosis, a symptom of seizures, fear stemming from the first seizure, and social isolation or rejection. (4) However, just like depression, causes of epilepsy can also contribute to anxiety symptoms. (4) One meta-analysis of 27 studies in over three thousand adults with epilepsy showed a pooled prevalence of anxiety disorders of 20.2%, with generalized anxiety disorder being the most common. (6) 

Epilepsy can also cause slowness, memory impairment, attention problems, and dementia. (4) Cognitive and intellectual problems caused by epilepsy are often related to it beginning at an early age, the number or frequency of seizures, poor seizure control, the length of the seizure, low oxygen levels, injury, infection at birth, or underlying brain lesions. (4) For young children, development can be delayed due to uncontrolled seizures, and in those with underlying cognitive problems, there are higher rates of brain abnormalities, which can result in different kinds of seizures. (4) 

Most concerningly, however, is epilepsy’s effect on psychosis. Psychiatric comorbidities are associated with premature mortality for a variety of reasons, such as an increased risk of substance or alcohol abuse, increased risk of injury, and suicidality. (6) A meta-analysis of 57 studies of psychosis and related disorders including over 40 thousand individuals showed a pooled prevalence of 5.6% in unselected individuals increasing to 7% and in those with mesial temporal lobe epilepsy having a greater risk of 7.8% compared to the general population. (6) These psychiatric symptoms are categorized as preictal, ictal, postictal, paraictal, and interictal according to their relationship with seizures. (6) 

Preictal symptoms precede a seizure and mostly occur during tonic-clonic seizures or temporal lobe epilepsy. (6) Preictal psychosis can include irritability, insomnia, and dysphoria that can last anywhere from a few hours to two days. (6) 

Ictal symptoms are manifestations of a seizure and may present as focal aware seizures. (6) These can cause nonmotor, emotional dysfunction (ictal fear or depression), and nonconvulsive status epilepticus (ictal psychosis). (6) 4% of epilepsy patients who experience complex partial seizures have religious experiences during psychosis called religious ictal seizures. (7) The symptoms of this vary, but those who experience this describe intense emotions of God’s presence, hearing his voice, feeling connected to the infinite, clairvoyance telepathy, repetition, or a visual hallucination of a religious figure. (7) Emotions felt during these events are generally indescribable. (7) There is also near total amnesia of all ictal events, and memory varies, with those events being followed by periods of sleep or blunted meditations, which distort memory, making it unreliable. (7) 

Postictal symptoms typically follow a bilateral tonic-clonic seizure but are also associated with temporal lobe epilepsy. (6) The resulting psychosis only affects about 2% of people. (6) Despite this, postictal psychosis is the most described and investigated form of psychosis and is also associated with temporal lobe epilepsy. (6) Postictal psychosis involves having florid, but brief psychotic episodes lasting hours or weeks, often described as worsening comorbid mood or anxiety disorders. (6) The onset of this psychosis is subtle, coming after 48 hours of lucid interval from the seizure and has a high mortality risk due to high suicidal ideation and violent behavior. (6)  

Paraictal symptoms involve forced normalization and behavior disturbance of acute or subacute onset. (6) This involves significant mood changes, anxiety, depersonalization or derealization, and psychogenic, nonepileptic attacks, as well as a reduction in the total number of spikes. (6) After paraictal symptoms have run their course, there can be a complete cessation of seizures for at least one week. (6) 

Finally, interictal symptoms can cause personality disorders like Geschwind syndrome characterized by obsessionality, increased philosophical or religious interests, hyposexuality, and hypergraphia. (6) Interictal symptoms – like ictal and postictal symptoms – are usually found in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy. (6) It also involves schizophrenia-like, chronic psychosis with preserved affect and without progressive cognitive deterioration. (6) Interictal symptoms can also come with interictal dysphoric disorder with chronic affective somatoform syndrome, characterized by mood swings with irritability with multiple somatic symptoms. (6) 

Now that the symptoms of epilepsy have been laid out, one can move to determining if Jesus or Muhammad had symptoms resembling epilepsy. Starting with Jesus, if it could be proven that He had epilepsy that caused Him to believe that He was hearing from God, then it would cause a massive fracture in the validity of the Christian faith. (21) However, while psychiatrists and religious scholars and writers agree that Jesus was regarded as insane, delusional, or even demon possessed by family, friends, followers, and contemporaries (Mark 3:21, John 7:20, 10:19-21) (3, 19) there is no reference of Jesus ever having epilepsy or anything resembling it. The beliefs of critics such as Jean Meslier, David Straus, Lemuel K. Washburn, Oskar Holtzmann, Henry Leffmann, Georg Lomer, Oskar Panizza, Y.V. Mints, William Hirsh, and others that Jesus had epilepsy (19) are thus woefully unfounded. 

The same cannot be said about Muhammad, however. Muhammad was considered epileptic during the Byzantine period, about 200 years after his death. (7) Since then, this diagnosis has become a great theological and philosophical debate, raising questions about the validity of his prophethood, suggesting that he pretended his fits were revelation from Allah passed on through the angel Gabriel. (7, 13, 22) This was first brought up by Byzantine monk and early Greek chronicler, Theophanes, in the 8th century who suggested that Muhammad’s revelations were epileptic episodes. (7) Western historians, theologians, orientalists and physicians such as Humphrey Prideaux, Hottinger (a Swiss philologist and theologian), John Zonaras, Gustav Weil, (who was perhaps the first to probe into the oldest traditional biographies of Muhammad) Sir William Muir, and others believed this theory. (7)  

Modern-day, eminent neurologists have also agreed with this assessment, suggesting based on the writings of these orientalists, historians, and chronologists that Muhammad had temporal lobe epilepsy. (7) Prominent American neurologists such as William Gordon Lennox and Roy Freemon made significant contributions to this debate. (7) Lennox wrote in his book Epilepsy and Related Disorders that Muhammad had temporal lobe epilepsy based on hallucinatory auras recorded by Muir, including two losses of consciousness at age 2. (7) Freemon wrote what was possibly the first article on Muhammad’s epilepsy to be published in a scientific journal. (7) He concluded that Muhammad likely had psychomotor seizures from temporal lobe epilepsy, though historical knowledge of his brain function during altered states of consciousness doesn’t allow for an unequivocal diagnosis. (7) 

Furthermore, though some incorrect or erroneous translations have been found, reliable hadiths are available to provide evidence that Muhammad was potentially epileptic. (7) Starting with possible accounts of Muhammad having epilepsy from childhood, according to Sahih al-Bukhari 7571, Muhammad had a dream that Gabriel cut open his chest, took out his organs, veins, etc., washed them, put them back, and took him to visit heaven. (1) This hadith may be related to a similar account in Sahih Muslim, which says: “It is narrated on the authority of Anas b. Malik that the Messenger of Allah said: the angels came to me and took me to the Zamzam and my heart was opened and washed with the water of Zamzam and then I was left (at my place).” (Sahih Muslim 162b) (1) This account continues in Sahih Muslim 162c in more detail, saying, “Anas b. Malik reported that Gabriel came to the Messenger of Allah while he was playing with his playmates. He took hold of him and lay him prostrate on the ground and tore open his breast and took out the heart from it and said: That was the part of Satan in thee. And then he washed it with the water of Zamzam in a golden basin and then it was joined together and restored to its place. The boys came running to his mother, i.e. his nurse, and said: Verily Muhammad has been murdered. They all rushed toward him (and found him all right) his color was changed, Anas said. I myself saw the marks of needle on his breast.” (1) 

This event, known as Shaq al-Sadar (The Opening of the Chest), happened when Muhammad was a young child, out grazing cattle with his foster brother Abdullah ibn Harith. (10) Muhammad reportedly remembered the incident, as did Abdullah, Muhammad’s other foster siblings, and the other boys present. (10) One report also alleged that Halima, Muhammad’s wet-nurse and foster mother, had a dream about Shaq al-Sadar before it happened and had tried to stop Muhammad from going out. (10)   

As one author who calls himself Silas writes regarding Shaq al-Sadar, “Here is the story told by Muhammad’s wet-nurse, related in Guillaume’s translation of Ibn Ishaw, page 72: ‘His [Muhammad’s friends] father said to me, ‘I am afraid that this child has had a stroke, so take him back to his family before the result appears. … She [Muhammad’s mother] asked me what happened and gave me no peace until I told her. When she asked if I feared a demon had possessed him, I replied that I did.” (paragraph 4, sentence 2 – paragraph 5) (13) 

Interestingly, Islamic scholars such as al-Tabari and Ibn Sa’d used “fits,” “epilepsy,” “epileptic,” “falling sickness,” or “sara’a” in their chapters about Muhammad’s life, referring to the Shaq al-Sadar. (7) Tabari specifically called it a malady; Ibn Ishaw called it a stroke, and later writers such as Hisham and Sprenger called it an epileptic fit or hysteria respectively. (7) This is significant, as epilepsy was a condition known to Arab physicians at the time, and one hadith even mentions a person with epilepsy going to Muhammad for help, as recorded by Ibn Abbas. (7) William Muir, in his book, Life of Mahomet, similarly interpreted the story of 4-year-old Muhammad having his heart cut out by two angels (as told in Katib al Wackedi) as epilepsy. (7) He also added a comment from Halima’s husband that Muhammad “had a fit (omeeb) and advised his wife to return Muhammad to his mother.” (7) 

This is not the only instance where Muhammad had an experience that appears to be like epilepsy. Accounts of Muhammad’s initial revelation and later revelation from authoritative hadiths like Sahih Bukhari and Sahih Muslim sound similar to epileptic symptoms. As written in Sahih Bukhari 4951, “Then Allah’s Messenger returned with that experience; and the muscles between his neck and shoulders were trembling till he came upon Khadija (his wife) and said, ‘Cover me!’ They covered him, and when the state of fear was over, he said to Khadija, ‘O Khadija! What is wrong with me? I was afraid that something bad might happen to me.” (1)  Sahih Bukhari 6982 also continues the story of the initial revelation, saying, ““But after a few days Waraqa died and the Divine Inspiration was also paused for a while and the Prophet became so sad as we have heard that he intended several times to throw himself from the tops of high mountains and every time he went to throw himself down, Gabriel would appear before him and say, “O Muhammad! You are indeed Allah’s messenger in truth” whereupon his heart would do as before, but when he used to reach the top of a mountain, Gabriel would appear before him and say to him what he had said before.” (1) From this account, Theophanes writes: “He had an epileptic seizure, and when his wife noticed this, she became very distressed, for she was noble and had now been joined to a man who was not only helpless but epileptic as well. He turned to conciliating her, saying, ‘I see a vision of the angel known as Gabriel, and faint and fall because I cannot bear up under the sight of him.” (paragraph 10, sentence 4-5) (7) 

Though the trembling could be explained as being caused by fear and the suicidality from depression about Waraqa’s death, that does not adequately explain other strange symptoms that came before later revelations. Muhammad’s wife, Aisha, is recorded asking Muhammad what it was like receiving revelation from Allah. (1) His response, recorded in Sahih Muslim 2333b was, ““[…] at times it comes to me like the ringing of a bell…” (1) This is statement is corroborated by Sahih Bukhari 2, which says, “Narrated Aisha: […] Al-Harith bin Hisham asked Allah’s Messenger ‘O Allah’s Messenger! How is the Divine Inspiration revealed to you?’ Allah’s Messenger replied, ‘Sometimes it is (revealed) like the ringing of a bell, this form of Inspiration is the hardest of all and then this state passes off after I have grasped what is inspired.’” (1) Sunan an-Nasa’i 933 also records this event. (1) 

Already, this is strange, but other pre-revelation symptoms include phobic states such as anxiety, sweating, palpitations, trembling, visual and auditory hallucinations, and fainting. (7) As one hadith records: “At the moment of inspiration, anxiety pressed upon the Prophet and his countenance was troubled. He fell to the ground like an inebriate, or one overcome by sleep. On the coldest day his forehead would be bedewed with large drops of perspiration…To outward appearance inspiration descended unexpectedly, without any previous warning to the Prophet.” (paragraph 18, sentence 3-5) (7) Once again, Sahih Bukhari 2 also corroborates this, with Aisha saying, “Verily I saw the Prophet being inspired divinely on a very cold day and noticed that sweat dropping from his forehead (as the Inspiration was over).” (1) 

Muslim apologists argue that these pre-revelation symptoms are simply general discomfort that is to be expected during divine-to-human transfer. (7) However, despite the evidence so closely mirrors temporal-lobe epileptic auras that it’s no surprise that Ibn Sa’d devoted an entire chapter in Tabqat-al-Kabir to the symptoms associated with revelations, from which Freemon based his conclusions that Muhammad had temporal lobe epilepsy. (7) From this, Prideaux’s theory that Muhammad had epileptic fits that he used to compile chapters (surahs) of the Quran becomes plausible. (7)  

In response to this, Muslims have several arguments to the contrary. On the Shaq al-Sadar, Hasan Aziz says, “From neurological or any other perspective, this episode extraordinaire of a child surviving splitting open of his chest or belly to be closed within minutes and later relating the details himself or witnessed by his foster [sibling] is probably paranormal and cannot be accepted as epilepsy or any human happening.” (Paragraph 14, sentence 6) (7) Aziz also writes concerning the physical accompaniments of Muhammad’s revelations, quote, “On some occasions at least, there were some physical accompaniments. He would be gripped by a feeling of pain, and in his ears, there would be a noise like the reverberation of a bell. Even on a very cold day the bystanders would see great pearls of sweat on his forehead as the revelation descended upon him. Such accounts led some Western critics to suggest that he had epilepsy, but there are no real grounds for such a view. Epilepsy leads to physical and mental degeneration, and there are no signs of that in Muhammad; on the contrary, he was in full possession of his faculties to the very end of life.” (paragraph 21, sentence 3-7) (7)  

Another point that Aziz makes is that after every pre-revelation event, there was a Quranic revelation. (7) He argues that had it been a result of an epileptic attack, the revelations should not have been remembered as epileptic attacks are commonly followed by stupor, confusion, and amnesia. (7) It’s also reported in some hadiths that a buzzing could be heard by others before Muhammad went into one of his revelatory swoons, further refuting the idea that he was simply experiencing epileptic hallucinations. (7) 

Further arguments against the idea that Muhammad had epilepsy are that some of the translations of the hadiths are flawed. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, a scholar of the Arabic language, worked on validating translations of the hadiths, finding inaccuracies and mistranslations. (7) When reviewing Muir’s translation of the Shaq al-Sadar, he pointed out that Muir’s translation of “omeeb” was incorrect, as it’s a word found in no Arabic lexicon and had no meaning. (7) The actual word was oseeb, which has many connotations that express dismay or affliction. (7)  Khan also commented on the per se translation of Abilfeda’s work into English by Dr. Edward Pococke, saying that his work was flawed as he added “hypochondriacal” to make the sentence flow more logically and grammatically in Latin, but changed the meaning of the entire sentence. (7) From there, since Prideaux had based his conclusions on Pococke’s work, Khan believed that Prideaux had reached a faulty conclusion from a faulty translation. (7) English historian Edward Gibbon also rejected Theophanes’ statements about Muhammad having epilepsy, calling them “an absurd calumny of the Greeks.” (7) Thomas Carlyle and William Montgomery Watts similarly rejected it, with Carlyle going so far as to paint Muhammad as a hero. (7)  

However, though epilepsy could be, at best a plausible explanation for Muhammad’s behavior, there are other explanations to take into account, such as his mental health, which will be discussed in part two.

Until next time,

M.J.

Dakwah Nabi Muhammad bukan hanya ibadah ritual, tapi revolusi ekonomi. Beliau menghapus riba, membela kaum lemah, dan membangun sistem keadilan. Pelajari pesan mendalam untuk umat masa kini.

#fediverse #Dakwah #Ekonomi #Muhammad

https://dalam.web.id/jejak-sejarah/dakwah-ekonomi-nabi-muhammad-revolusi-riba

Archangel Michael

Also called Michael the Taxiarch. A taxiarch is used in the Greek language to mean “brigadier,” or a commander of a company. In Greek Orthodoxy, it refers to the Archangels Michael or Gabriel as leaders of the heavenly hosts.

Michael is an archangel & warrior of God in Christianity, Islam, & Judaism. The earliest surviving mentions of his name are in the 2nd or 3rd centuries BC Jewish works, often but not always apocalyptic. In these works, he’s the chief of the angels & archangels. He’s the guardian prince of Israel & is responsible for the care of the people of Israel.

Christianity conserved nearly all of Jewish traditions concerning him. He’s mentioned explicitly in Revelation 12:7-12, where he does battle with Satan, & in the Epistle of Jude, where the archangel & the devil have an argument over the body of Moses.

The Book of Enoch lists Michael as 1 of 7 archangels. The remaining names are: Uriel, Raguel, Raphael, Sariel, Gabriel, & Remiel. He’s mentioned again in the last chapters of the Book of Daniel, a Jewish apocalypse composed in the 2nd century BC, in which a man clothed in linen tells Daniel that he & “Michael, your prince” are engaged in a battle with the “prince of Persia,” after which, at the end-time, “Michael, the great prince who protects your people, will arise.”

Enoch was instrumental in establishing the pre-eminent place of Michael among the angels & archangels. In later Jewish works, he’s said to be their chief, mediating the Torah, & standing at the right hand of the throne of God.

In the traditions of the Qumran community, he defends, or leads, the people of God in the end-time battle. In other writings, he’s responsible for the care of Israel & acts as commander of the heavenly armies. He’s Israel’s advocate, contesting Satan’s claim to the body of Moses.

He intercedes between God & humanity & serves as High Priest in the heavenly sanctuary. (So would this make him Aaron’s equal? We’re sincerely asking. Let us know your take in the comments.) He accompanies the souls of the righteous dead to Paradise.

The 7 archangels (or 4, as traditions differ, but always include Michael) were associated with the branches of the menorah, the sacred 7-branched lamp stand in the Temple, as the 7 spirits before the throne of God. This is reflected in the Book of Revelation 4:5. Michael is mentioned explicitly in Revelation 12:7-12, where he does battle with Satan & casts him out of heaven so that he no longer has that exclusive access to God as accuser (his former role in the Old Testament).

Satan’s fall at the coming of Jesus marks the separation of the New Testament from Judaism. In Luke 22:31, Jesus tells Peter that Satan has asked God for permission to “sift” the disciples, the goal being to accuse them. But the accusation by Jesus, who thus takes on the role played by angels, & especially by Michael, in Judaism.

Michael is mentioned by anem for the 2nd time in the Epistle of Jude, which is an impassioned plea for the believers to engage in battle against the incursion of the error. In verses 9-10, the author denounces the heretics by contrasting them with the archangel Michael, who, in disputing with Satan over the body of Moses.

According to rabbinic tradition, Michael acted as the advocate of Israel. Sometimes he had to fight with the princes of other nations (Daniel 10:13), & particularly with the angel Samael, Israel’s accuser. Their hostility dates from the time Samael was thrown from heaven & tried to drag Michael down with him, requiring God’s intervention.

The rabbis declare that Michael came into his role as defender at the time of the biblical patriarchs. Rabbi Eliezer ben Jacob said Michael rescued Abraham from the furnace into which he’d been thrown by Nimrod. Some say he was the “one that had escaped” (Genesis 14:13), who told Abraham that Lot had been taken captive & who protected Sarah from defilement by Abimelech.

Michael prevented Isaac’s being sacrificed by his dad by substituting a ram in his place. He saved Jacob, while still in his mom’s womb, from death at the hands of Samuel. Michael later prevented Laban from hurting Jacob. The midrash Exodus Rabbah holds that Michael exercised his function as an advocate of Israel at the time of the Exodus & destroyed Sennacherib’s army.

Epiphanius of Salamis (circa 310-circa 320-403), in his Coptic-Arabic Hexaemeron, referred to Michael as a replacement of Satan. Accordingly, after Satan fell, Michael was appointed to the function Satan served when he was still 1 of the noble angels.

A painting of Michael slaying a serpent became a major art piece at the Michaelion after Constantine defeated Licinius near there in 324. This contributed to the standard iconography that developed of Michael as a warrior saint slaying a dragon. The Michaelion was a magnificent church & in time became a model for hundreds of other churches in Eastern Christianity.

In the 4th century, St. Basil the Great’s homily, De Angelis, St. Michael over all the angels. He was called “Archangel” because he heralds other angels, the title archangelos applied to him in Jude 1:9. The angelology of Pseudo-Dionysius, which was widely read as of the 6th century, gave Michael a rank in the hierarchy of angels.

Later, in the 13th century, others such as Bonventure believed him to be Prince of the Seraphim, the 1st of the 9 angelic orders. According to Thomas Aquinas, Michael is the Prince of the last & lowest choir, the Angels.

Catholics often refer to Michael as “Holy Michael, the Archangel” or “St. Michael.” He’s generally referred to in Christian liturgies as “St. Michael,” as in the Litany of the Saints. In a shortened archangel, is mentioned by name, omitting Saints Gabriel & Raphael.

In Roman Catholic teachings, St. Michael has 4 main roles or offices. His 1st role is the leader of the Army of God & the leader of celestial forces in triumphing over the powers of Hell. He’s viewed as the angelic model for the virtues of the “spiritual warrior,” his conflict with evil taken as “the battle within.”

The 2nd & 3rd roles of Michael in Catholic teachings deal with death. In his 2nd role, he’s the angel of death, carrying the souls of Christians to Heaven. In his 3rd role, he weighs souls on his perfectly balanced scales. The scales are a common object he holds in art.

In his 4th role, St. Michael, the special patron of the Chosen People in the Old Testament, is also Guardian of the Church. St. Michael was revered by the military orders of knights during the Middle Ages. The names of villages around the Bay of Biscay reflect this history.

The Eastern Orthodox give Michael the title Archistrategos, or “Supreme Commander of the Heavenly Hosts.” The Eastern Orthodox pray to their guardian angels & above all, to Michael & Gabriel. The Eastern Orthodox have always had a strong devotion to angels. In modern times, they’re referred to by the term “Bodiless Powers.” Several feasts dedicated to Archangel Michael are celebrated by the Eastern Orthodox throughout the year.

In Russia, many monasteries, cathedrals, courts, & merchant churches are dedicated to the Chief Commander Michael. Most Russian cities have a church or chapel dedicated to the archangel Michael. In Ukraine, the archangel Michael is the patron saint of Kyiv. He became popular from the time of Prince Vsevolod of Kyivan Rus’.

While in the Serbian Orthodox Church, St. Sava has a special role as the establisher of its autocephaly & largest Belgrade church devoted to him, the capital Belgrade’s Orthodox cathedral, the see church of the patriarch, is devoted to Michael.

The place of Michael in the Coptic Church of Alexandra is as a saintly intercessor. He’s the 1 who presents to God the prayers of the just, who accompanies the souls of the dead to Heaven, who defeats the devil. He’s celebrated liturgically on the 12th of each Coptic month.

In Alexandria, a church was dedicated to him in the early 4th century on the 12th of the month of Paoni. The 12th month of Hathor is the celebration of Michael’s appointment in Heaven, where Michael became the chief of the angels.

Seventh-Day Adventists believe that “Michael” is but 1 of many titles applied to the pre-existent Christ, or Son of God. According to Adventist theology, Michael was/is considered the “Eternal Word,” & the 1 by whom all things were created. The Word was then born, incarnated as Jesus.

They believe that the name “Michael” signifies “One Who Is Like God” & that, as the “Archangel” or “chief or head of the angels,” he led the angels; thus, the statement in Revelation 12:7-9 refers to Jesus as Michael.

Jehovah’s Witnesses believe that Michael is another name for Jesus in Heaven, in His pre-human & post-resurrection existence. They say the definite article in Jude 9 identifies Michael as the only archangel. They consider Michael to be synonymous with Christ, described in 1 Thessalonians 4:16: “with a cry of command, with the voice of an archangel, & with the sound of the trumpet.”

They believe the prominent roles assigned to Michael in Daniel 12:1, Revelation 12:7, Revelation 16, & Revelation 19:14 are identical to Jesus’ roles, being the 1 chosen to lead God’s people & as the only 1 who “stands up,” identifying the 2 as the same spirit being.

Because they identify Michael with Jesus, he’s considered the 1st & greatest of all God’s heavenly “sons,” God’s chief messenger, who takes the lead in vindicating God’s sovereignty, sanctifying his name, fighting the wicked forces of Satan & protecting God’s covenant people on earth. Jehovah’s Witnesses also identify Michael with the “Angel of the Lord” who led & protected the Israelites in the wilderness.

Members of the Mormon Church believe that Michael is Adam (of Adam & Eve fame), the Ancient of Days (Daniel 7), a prince, & the patriarch of the human family. They also hold that Michael assisted Jehovah (the pre-mortal form of Jesus) in the creation of the world under the direction of God the Father (Elohim). Under the direction of the Father, Michael also cast Satan out of Heaven.

In Islam, Mika’il (Michael) is 1 of 4 archangels along with Jibril (Gabriel, whom he’s often paired with), Israfil (trumpeter angel) & ‘Azra’il (angel of death). In other Islamic literature, Michael is associated with mercy. He asks God for forgiveness for humans & is 1 of the 1st angels who obeyed God’s orders to bow before Adam.

From the tears of Michael, angels of mercy are created as his helpers. Like Gabriel, with whom he’s often mentioned together, Michael is also a messenger. While Gabriel delivers messages from Heaven to humans, Michael delivers messages to the angelic world.

As the angel to execute God’s providence, he’s also associated with natural phenomena & causes rain upon the lands. Unlike Christian traditions, Michael is rarely shown as a warrior-angel, with a few references to the Battle of Badr by Suyuti as an exception.

The Miraj literature on occasion mentions both Gabriel & Michael as 2 angels who showed Muhammad Paradise & Hell. He’s mentioned in Shia supplication (Dua), reportedly handed down by the 6th Imam Ja’far al-Sadiq, in the prayers for blessings for the Bearers of the Throne.

The figures of Michael & Gabriel/Jibril serve as dual pillars of angelology. While they show up in the same texts, their “personalities” & mythological roles are distinct. Michael is the celestial soldier & protector. While Gabriel is the bridge between the divine mind & the human ear.

The name Michael (Mikha’el) translates from Hebrew as a rhetorical question: “Who is like God?” This name is actually a battle cry used during the primordial war in Heaven.

In the Book of Daniel, Michael is described as the “Great Prince” who stands guard over the people of Israel. Jewish Midrash expands on this. It suggests that Michael is the high priest of the Heavenly Temple. When other nations’ guardian angels argue against Israel, Michael acts as the defense in the celestial courtroom. Because after all, God is the judge of all.

Michael’s most iconic role comes from the Book of Revelation. Here, he leads an army of God against the Dragon (a.k.a. Satan). He’s almost always dressed in Roman/Medieval armor, standing over a defeated demon/dragon, holding a spear/sword.

In Catholic traditions, Michael has a secondary role as the Psychopomp. A Psychopomp is a conductor or a guide of souls. The 1 who “weighs” souls at the moment of death. This is why he’s sometimes shown with scales.

In Islamic tradition, Mikail (Michael) is 1 of 4 archangels. While Jibril feeds the soul (through revelation), Mikail is the Angel of Sustenance. He’s responsible for the forces of nature, specifically rain & lightning. Legends say he’s so moved by the majesty of God that he hasn’t smiled since the creation of Hell.

In the United States, Michael is the patron saint of paratroopers, police officers, & the military.

In the General Roman Calendar, the Anglican Calendar of Saints, & the Lutheran Calendar of Saints, Michael’s feast day is Michaelmas Day (September 29). The day is also the feast day of St. Gabriel & Raphael, in the General Roman Calendar & the Feast of St. Michael & All Angels in the Church of England.

In the Eastern Orthodox Church, St. Michael’s principal feast day is November 8. November 21, if they’re using the Gregorian calendar. Honoring him along with the rest of the “Bodiless Powers of Heaven” (angels) as their Supreme Commander, & the Miracle at Chonae is celebrated on September 6.

In the Coptic Orthodox Church, the main feast day is on 12 Hathor (between November 9 & December 9) & 12 Paoni (between June 8 & July 7). He is celebrated liturgically on the 12th of each Coptic month.

On April 7, the Oriental Orthodox Church commemorates the deliverance of the prophet Jeremiah from prison by Michael.

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Muhammad: dalla Nigeria col sogno di fare il medico https://sosmediterranee.it/2026/03/24/muhammad-dalla-nigeria-col-sogno-di-fare-il-medico/ #Testimonianze #Muhammad #Nigeria #uomo

https://cocodillaa.com/prophet-muhammad-%ef%b7%ba-wallpapers/

#Muhammad #Prophet #Allah #love

Kisah inspiratif Muhammad Ali Taher tokoh Palestina yang menyerahkan seluruh kekayaannya demi kemerdekaan Indonesia pada 1948

#fediverse #Muhammad #Taher #Pahlawan

https://dalam.web.id/jejak-sejarah/muhammad-ali-taher-pahlawan-palestina

2/2 The US has once again made many enemies, however this time they also made many friends (Iranian exiles, Israelis, Sunni groups...). #Ayatollah #Khamenei #Muhammad #News #Muslims #Iran

For many Shia, Khamenei’s killing - as a Sayyid (a descendant of Muhammad) - likely felt comparable to how Catholics would feel if the pope were killed.

Protests have erupted across the Middle East / Asia, near U.S. /Israeli military bases, embassies.

The US has once again made many enemies, however this time they also made many friends (Iranian exiles, Israelis, Sunni groups...).

#Religion #Politics #USpol #USA #US #Israel #Iranwar #Iran #Ayatollah #Khamenei #muhammad #News #Muslim #Muslims

https://www.europesays.com/iran/6454/ Iran’s FM, Iraq’s PM Discuss War Developments #a #Abbas #al #Araghchi #conversation #Developments #Discuss #FM #Foreign #held #in #Iran’s #iranian #Iraq #Iraq’s #iraqi #Islam #Minister #Muhammad #PM #Prime #recent #region #Shia #Sudani #telephone #the #Times #to #War #with

#Islam #Yahya #Muhammad #Three_Little_Orphans 🥺
The war stole their father and their lives.💔
I am their sole provider.
They suffer from all kinds of hardship in the tent. They are deprived of a normal life like any other child.
#Your_Support_Helps_Them_Survive🙏
https://chuffed.org/project/161617
#Gaza #Palestine
@gvenema
@Geri
#Share_this_post_as_much_as_you_can
@gimulnautti

#Islam #Yahya #Muhammad #Three_Little_Orphans 🥺
The war stole their father and their lives.💔
I am their sole provider.
They suffer from all kinds of hardship in the tent. They are deprived of a normal life like any other child.
#Your_Support_Helps_Them_Survive🙏
https://chuffed.org/project/161617
#Gaza #Palestine
@gvenema
@Geri
#Share_this_post_as_much_as_you_can
@gimulnautti

#Islam #Yahya #Muhammad #Three_Little_Orphans 🥺
The war stole their father and their lives.💔
I am their sole provider.
They suffer from all kinds of hardship in the tent. They are deprived of a normal life like any other child.
#Your_Support_Helps_Them_Survive🙏
https://chuffed.org/project/161617
#Gaza #Palestine
@gvenema
@Geri
#Share_this_post_as_much_as_you_can
@gimulnautti

#Islam #Yahya #Muhammad #Three_Little_Orphans 🥺
The war stole their father and their lives.💔
I am their sole provider.
They suffer from all kinds of hardship in the tent. They are deprived of a normal life like any other child.
#Your_Support_Helps_Them_Survive🙏
https://chuffed.org/project/161617
#Gaza #Palestine
@gvenema
@Geri
#Share_this_post_as_much_as_you_can
@gimulnautti