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Chemical Thermodynamics by M.Kh. Karapetyants
The book is primarily aimed at students in higher education specialising in chemistry, particularly future engineers. The author has avoided unnecessary abstraction and overly complex mathematics to ensure the material remains practical and accessible, while still providing a solid theoretical foundation. The content includes approximate laws that allow for quick, practical problem-solving, even when precise values are unavailable. The author integrates empirical thermodynamics with the periodic table to make thermodynamic concepts more comprehensible, particularly entropy, which students often find difficult to grasp.
The book also addresses the importance of connecting thermodynamics with other branches of chemistry, such as general and inorganic chemistry, to enhance students’ understanding for later courses. The primary focus is on the thermodynamics of gaseous systems, with less emphasis on solutions and electrolytes. Numerous examples, mainly related to inorganic substances and chemical processing, help students apply theory to practical problems, with calculations that can be compared to experimental data. The book also includes many tables and figures derived from various sources to support these applications.
Translated from the Russian by G. Leib
Credits to the original uploaders, this is a cleaned optimised scan.
You can get the book here and here
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Contents
List of Tables 11
Preface 13
Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION 15
1.1. The Subject and Method of Thermodynamics 15
1.2. Basic Concepts and Definitions 17
1.2.1. Systems and Their Classification 17
1.2.2. Thermodynamic Parameters 18
1.2.3. Work and Heat 22
1.2.4. Reversible and Irreversible Processes 23
1.2.5. Mathematical Relations Between the Parameters of State 28
1.3. Terms and Symbols 33
Chapter 2. THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 35
2.1. Content of the First Law 35
2.1.1. Cyclic Processes 35
2.1.2. Non-Cyclic Processes. Internal Energy 36
2.2. Enthalpy 41
Chapter 3. HEAT EFFECTS AND HEAT CAPACITIES 45
3.1. Hess’s Law 45
3.2. Standard Heat Effects 49
3.3. Some Methods of Calculating Heat Effects 53
3.3.1. Heats of Formation 53
3.3.2. Heats of Combustion 57
3.3.3. Comparative Calculation of Heat Effects 58
3.4. Heat Capacity 58
3.4.1. Heat Capacity in Different Processes 58
3.4.2. Temperature Dependence of Heat Capacity 61
3.4.3. Certain Laws 71
3.5. Temperature Dependence of Heat Effect 73
3.5.1. Kirchhoff Equation 73
3.5.2. Equation AH = <p(T) in Its Final Form 77
3.5.3. Heat Balance 84
Chapter 4. THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 87
4.1. Content of the Second Law 87
4.1.1. The Carnot Cycle 87
4.1.2. Thermodynamic Temperature Scale 91
4.1.3. Impossibility of a Perpetual Motion Machine 92
4.2. Entropy 94
4.2.1. Change in Entropy in Reversible Processes 95
4.2.2. Change in Entropy in Irreversible Processes 97
4.2.3. Change in Entropy as a Criterion of the Equilibrium and Spontaneity of Processes 98
4.2.4. Relation Between Entropy and Other Thermodynamic Parameters and Some Relationships Between Derived Functions 102
4.3. Substantiation of the Second Law 106
4.3.1. Thermodynamic Probability of a State 106
4.3.2. Phase Space 106
4.3.3. Relationship Between Entropy and Thermodynamic Probability 108
4.3.4. Fluctuations 110
4.3.5. The Invalidity of the “Theory of Heat Death” of the Universe 112
Chapter 5. THERMODYNAMIC AND CHEMICAL POTENTIALS. THE GENERAL CONDITIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM 114
5.1. Thermodynamic Potentials 114
5.1.1. Change in Thermodynamic Potential as a Criterion of the Equilibrium and Spontaneous Nature of a Process 119
5.1.2. Various Thermodynamic Relationships 121
5.2. Characteristic Functions 123
5.3. Chemical Potential 128
5.4. General Conditions of Equilibrium 131
5.4.1. Stable and Unstable Equilibria 132
5.4.2. Equilibrium Coexistence of Phases. The Gibbs Phase Rule 134
5.4.3. Principle of Displacement of Equilibrium 139
Chapter 6. ONE-COMPONENT HOMOGENEOUS SYSTEMS 141
6.1. Ideal Gas 141
6.2. Equations of State of a Real Gas 150
6.3. Fugacity 159
6.3.1. Standard State 160
6.3.2. Temperature Dependence of Fugacity 162
6.3.3. Methods of Calculating Fugacity 163
6.4. Throttling 168
6.5. Calculation of Properties of Gases According to Experimental Data 175
6.5.1. Calculations Using the Relationships p-V-T and Cp = q>(T) 175
6.5.2. Calculations Using the Relationships Cp = <p(p, T) or H = q(p, T) and VT> = 9 (p) 184
6.5.3. Calculations Using (ij and C9 185
6.5.4. Influence of Pressure on the Heat Effect of a Reaction 185
6.6. A Generalized Method of Calculating Selected Properties of Gases and Liquids at Pressures above Atmospheric 186
6.6.1. Gases 186
6.6.2. Liquids 199
Chapter 7. ONE-COMPONENT HETEROGENEOUS SYSTEMS 205
7.1. Relationship Between Temperature and Pressure with Coexisting Phases 205
7.1.1. Clapeyron-Clausius Equation 205
7.1.2. Approximate Relationships 209
7.2. Methods for the Comparative Calculation of the Temperature Dependence of the Saturated Vapour Pressure 214
7.2.1. Straight Line Method 215
7.2.2. Method of Comparing Boiling Points of Given and Standard Substances at Equal Vapour Pressures 216
7.2.3. Method of Comparing Vapour Pressures of Various Substances at Equal Boiling Points 218
7.2.4. Method of Comparing Vapour Pressures of Various Substances at Equal Reduced Boiling Points 220
7.3. Critical State 221
7.4. Heat Capacities of Coexisting Phases and Heats of Phase Transitions 227
7.4.1. Heat Capacities of Coexisting Phases 227
7.4.2. Heats of Phase Transitions 232
7.5. Influence of Total Pressure on Saturated Vapour Pressure 244
7.6. Influence of Surface Curvature on Saturated Vapour Pressure 247
7.7. Second-Order Phase Transitions 249
Chapter 8. SOLUTIONS 251
8.1. Fundamental Concepts and Definitions 251
8.2. Partial Molar Quantities 255
8.2.1. Basic Equations 257
8.2.2. Methods of Calculation 260
8.3. Heat Capacities and Enthalpies of Solutions 264
8.3.1. Partial Molar Heat Capacities 264
8.3.2. Partial Molar Enthalpies 265
8.4. Ideal Solutions 272
8.5. Infinitely Dilute Solutions 278
8.5.1. Partial Molar Quantities 279
8.5.2. Henry’s Law 281
Chapter 9. BINARY SOLUTION-PURE COMPONENT EQUILIBRIUM 285
9.1. Relationship Between Temperature and Concentration 285
9.1.1. Solution-Solid Component Equilibrium 287
9.1.2. Analysis of Solubility Diagrams 292
9.1.3. Solution-Gas Equilibrium 304
9.2. Relationship Between Pressure and Concentration 305
9.2.1. Solution-Solid Component Equilibrium 306
9.2.2. Solution-Gas Equilibrium 307
9.3. Gas Mixture-Pure Component Equilibrium 317
9.4. Influence of Dispersion on Solubility 318
Chapter 10. SOLUTION-SOLUTION EQUILIBRIUM IN BINARY MIXTURES 319
10.1. Liquid-Gas Equilibrium for Completely Miscible Liquids at Low Pressures 319
10.1.1. Ideal Solution-Mixture of Ideal Gases 319
10.1.2. Non-Ideal Solution-Mixture of Ideal Gases 322
10.1.3. Separation of Solution Components 332
10.2. Liquid-Gas Equilibrium for Completely Miscible Liquids at High Pressures 334
10.2.1. Critical Phenomena 341
10.3. Equilibrium in Systems with Incompletely Miscible Liquids 349
10.3.1. Liquid-Gas Equilibrium 349
10.3.2. Liquid-Liquid Equilibrium 351
10.3.3. Gas-Gas Equilibrium 352
10.4. Liquid-Gas Equilibrium for Immiscible Liquids 355
Chapter 11. EQUILIBRIUM IN THREE- AND FOUR-COMPONENT SYSTEMS 359
11.1. Depicting Composition 359
11.1.1. Three-Component Systems 359
11.1.2. Four-Component Systems 361
11.2. Liquid-Solid Equilibrium in Three-Component Systems 362
11.2.1. Substances Forming No Compounds 362
11.2.2. Substances Forming Compounds 366
11.2.3. Isotherms of Aqueous Solutions of Two Common-Ion Salts 367
11.3. Mutual Solubility of Three Liquids 385
11.4. Liquid-Gas Equilibrium in Ternary Systems 391
11.4.1. Isotherm 391
11.4.2. Isobaric Systems 399
Chapter 12. THE PRINCIPLE OF MAXIMUM ENTROPY 405
12.1. Entropy as a Thermodynamic Function 405
12.2. Method of Maximum Entropy 410
12.3. Application of the Maximum Entropy Principle in Thermodynamics 414
Chapter 13. MODERN CONCEPTS OF THERMODYNAMICS 419
13.1. Thermodynamic Models 419
13.2. Relations with Other Areas of Science 421
13.3. Role of Thermodynamics in Physical Chemistry 424
13.4. Applications of Thermodynamics in Industry 427
13.5. Advanced Topics in Thermodynamics 430Chapter 14. EQUILIBRIUM TRANSFORMATION 518
14.1. Direction of a Process 518
14.2. Calculation of Equilibrium Transformation 527
14.2.1. Reactions in the Gaseous Phase 528
14.2.2. Reactions in Solutions 531
14.2.3. Heterogeneous Reactions 533
14.2.4. Electrochemical Reactions 537
14.3. Influence of Various Factors on the Extent of a Reaction 541
14.3.1. Temperature 541
14.3.2. Pressure 545
14.3.3. Presence of an Inert Gas 548
14.3.4. Ratio of Reactants 549
14.3.5. Change in Surface Area 550
14.3.6. Kind of Reaction 552
14.4. Equilibrium in Complex Chemical Systems 553
14.5. Sources of Errors in Calculating Equilibrium 562
14.5.1. Errors Due to Inaccuracy of Experimental Data 562
14.5.2. Errors Connected with the Processing of Experimental Data 564
14.6. Theoretical and Practical Extents of a Reaction 566
Chapter 15. FUNDAMENTALS OF QUANTUM STATISTICAL CALCULATIONS OF THERMODYNAMIC FUNCTIONS AND CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM FROM SPECTROSCOPIC DATA 568
15.1. Introduction 568
15.2. Thermodynamic Properties of Gases Due to Translational Degrees of Freedom 572
15.3. Thermodynamic Properties of Gases Due to Intramolecular Degrees of Freedom 575
15.3.1. Rotational Partition Function 577
15.3.2. Vibrational Partition Function 583
15.3.3. Partition Function for Electronic Excitation 587
15.3.4. Nuclear Spin 588
15.3.5. Effect of Isotopic Composition 589
15.3.6. Group of Properties 589
15.4. Calculation of Chemical Equilibrium 592
APPENDICES 599
List of Symbols 599
Heat Capacities, Standard Enthalpies and Gibbs Energies of
#chemistry #sovietLiterature #thermodynamicSystems #thermodynamics -
Physicists Find Useful Energy Hiding in Quantum “Waste Heat”
An atom in a cavity between two mirrors (left) acts as a heat engine in a driven-dissipative quantum…
#NewsBeep #News #Physics #AU #Australia #QuantumMechanics #QuantumPhysics #quantumtechnology #Science #Thermodynamics #UniversityofBasel
https://www.newsbeep.com/au/885958/ -
Physicists Find Useful Energy Hiding in Quantum “Waste Heat”
An atom in a cavity between two mirrors (left) acts as a heat engine in a driven-dissipative quantum…
#NewsBeep #News #Physics #AU #Australia #QuantumMechanics #QuantumPhysics #quantumtechnology #Science #Thermodynamics #UniversityofBasel
https://www.newsbeep.com/au/885958/ -
Physicists Find Useful Energy Hiding in Quantum “Waste Heat”
An atom in a cavity between two mirrors (left) acts as a heat engine in a driven-dissipative quantum…
#NewsBeep #News #Physics #QuantumMechanics #QuantumPhysics #quantumtechnology #Science #Thermodynamics #UK #UnitedKingdom #UniversityofBasel
https://www.newsbeep.com/uk/764826/ -
I keep coming back to this relatively unknown Australian dissertation -- it's about doctor-patient relations dangerously being interfered with by penny-pinching admins (residents of Eugene, Oregon are familiar with this).
160 pages in, he wants to discuss patient suffering as an #entropy avoidance signaling system. >>
"Only within an arguable and extensive ontological frame can I then begin to make sense of the core question of how an administrative intervention has impacted on doctors’ perception of their relationships with patients."
"It will be proposed in the course of this chapter that suffering in human beings, in thermodynamic terms, constitutes a rapid increase in entropy. High rates of entropy threaten the overall viability of the organism. Rapid changes in entropy activate restorative homeostatic processes which includes recruiting the help of others. States of high entropy or rapid rates of entropic increase can be ‘reversed’ (that is, suffering can be relieved) through the introduction, from external sources, of intentional non-random energy (including new information) into the human biological system."
"Humans can signal to others that they are experiencing rapid increases in entropy (i.e. that they are suffering). In this framing, hospital Emergency Departments are places where extreme states of entropy (suffering) are concentrated as the suffering patient expresses a need for, and recruits, external inputs of restorative and transmutative energies."
"Through the act of suffering, humans can be conceived of as being bound together ethically, in that the route of concern for the suffering of others lies in seeing this as similar to the suffering of oneself. "
Katzir-Katchalsky is quoted: "Life is a constant struggle against the tendency to produce entropy by irreversible processes. The synthesis of large and information-rich macromolecules, the formation of intricately structured cells, the development of organisation — all these are powerful anti-entropic forces. But since there is no possibility of escaping the entropic doom imposed upon all natural phenomena under the Second Law of #thermodynamics, living organisms choose the least evil — they produce entropy at a minimal rate by maintaining a steady state."
<< #Ethics consists in readiness to serve the #homeostasis -- temporary reduction of rate of entropy -- of others.
Wow.
So, doctors (or anyone providing a service) address the homeostasis of clients. Management encounters institutional entropy due to energy outflow to clients, and attempts to address that. Over time, a hospital (or any institution) becomes entirely absorbed in strategies to maintain its own homeostasis and that of its upper management and the institutions and investors supplying it energy ostensibly intended to assist the clients. So there is an ethical/unethical tension built into any service system.
Five stars for this dissertation. ⭐ ⭐ ⭐ ⭐ ⭐ >>
The Entropy of Suffering V1.2 .pages - uws_55187.pdf
https://researchers-admin.westernsydney.edu.au/ws/portalfiles/portal/94911726/uws_55187.pdf
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Data Centres in Space
If you're collecting money for them, you're a scammer.
If you're an investor putting money into such a project, you're so dumb that you deserve being scammed.
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Copper Bling Keeps Camera Chill https://hackaday.com/2024/09/25/copper-bling-keeps-camera-chill/ #digitalcamerashacks #thermodynamics #Actioncamera #heatspreader #aluminum #heatsink #copper
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Copper Bling Keeps Camera Chill - Every action camera these days seems prone to overheating and sudden shutdowns aft... - https://hackaday.com/2024/09/25/copper-bling-keeps-camera-chill/ #digitalcamerashacks #thermodynamics #actioncamera #heatspreader #aluminum #heatsink #copper