#bohemia — Public Fediverse posts

by Ondřej Trojan

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Ashkenazi Jews

Author’s Note: This post has mentions of Nazis, the Holocaust, & Nazi Germany. We completely understand if you wish to skip over this post. We’ll catch you in the next one!

Also known as Ashkenazic Jews, Ashkenazis, or Ashkenazim.

This is a form of distinct ethnic subdivision of the Jewish Diaspora. Emerging from the Jewish communities that consolidated during the 10th century in the Rhineland (Western Germany) & northern France. They migrated there from centers such as the Italian peninsula & the Southern Levant. This includes present-day Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, & Jordan.

After numerous massacres of Jews during the Crusades (11th-13th centuries), they began a gradual eastward migration due to mounting restrictions within the Holy Roman Empire & the favorable policies of Casimir the Great & others.

This diaspora ramped up after the persecution during the Black Death of the 14th century. The bulk of the Ashkenazi Jews had migrated to the Kingdom of Poland (which includes modern-day Poland, Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine, & parts of Russia). This area became the main center of Ashkenazi Jewry until the Holocaust.

Ashkenazim adapted their traditions, rites, & customs to Europe. They traditionally followed the German rite synagogue ritual & until the Holocaust primarily spoke Yiddish, an offshoot of Middle High German written in a variety of the Hebrew script, with significant Hebrew, Aramaic, & Slavic influences.

The Yiddish language progressively declined in prestige, in favor of national languages & Hebrew, being stigmatized by assimilationists & later also Zionists. Though it was spoken by over 11 million people worldwide before the Holocaust. The Yiddishist movement, which sought to preserve & revive the language, faded through the 20th century. Including Duolingo adding Yiddish as a language.

As a proportion of the world Jewish population, Ashkenazim were estimated to be 3% in the 11th century, rising to 92% in 1930, near the population’s peak. The Ashkenazi population was significantly diminished by the Holocaust carried out by Nazi Germany during WWII, which killed around 6 million Jews. Before WWII, the estimated worldwide Jewish population was 15.3-16.7 million, with 92% being Ashkenazi. As of 2023, the population of Ashkenazim was estimated to be around 10-13 million out of 15.8 million total Jews.

The name Ashkenazi comes from the biblical figure of Ashkenaz. He’s the 1st son of Gomer, grandson of Japhet, great-grandson of Noah, & a Japhetic patriarch in the Table of Nations. The name for Gomer has often been linked to the Cimmerians.

The Biblical Ashkenazis are usually derived from Assyrian Askuza, a people who expelled the Cimmerians from the Armenian area of the Upper Euphrates. The name Askuza is identified with the Scythians.

In Jeremiah 51:27, Ashkenaz figures as 1 of 3 kingdoms in the far north, the others being Minni (or Mannaea), an ancient kingdom that flourished in northwestern Iran, & Arrat (corresponding to Urartu), called on by God to resist Babylon.

Ashkenaz is linked to Scandza/Scanzia (usually identified with Scandinavia), viewed as the cradle of Germanic tribes, in the 6th-century gloss to the Historia Ecclesiastica of Eusebius. In the 10th century, in the History of Armenia of Yovhannes Drasxanakertci, Ashkenaz was associated with Armenia.

As it was occasionally in Jewish usage, where its denotation extended at times to Adiabene, Khazaria, Chimea, & areas to the east. They’re also identified with the Slavim or Slavs. In keeping with the custom of designating areas of Jewish settlement with biblical names, Spain was called Sefarad (Obadiah 20), France was called Tsarefat (I Kings 17:9), & Bohemia was called the Land of Canaan.

Given the close links between the Jewish communities of France & Germany following the Carolingian unification, the term Ashkenazi came to refer to the Jews of both medieval Germany & France.

In later times, the word Ashkenaz is used to designate southern & western Germany, the ritual of which sections differs somewhat from that of eastern Germany & Poland. Thus, the prayer book of Isaiah Horowitz (a prominent rabbi & mystic), & many others, give the piyyutim (a Jewish liturgical poem), according to the Minhag of Ashkenaz & Poland. A Minhag is an accepted tradition or group of traditions in Judaism.

In a religious sense, an Ashkenazi Jew is any Jew whose family tradition & synagogue ritual follow Ashkenazi practices (German rite). Until the Ashkenazi community 1st began to develop in the Early Middle Ages, the centers of Jewish religious authority were in the Islamic world, at Baghdad & Islamic Spain. German Ashkenaz was so geographically distant that it developed a minhag of its own.

The counterpart of Ashkenazi is Sephardic. Since most non-Ashkenazi Orthodox Jews follow Sephardic rabbinical authorities, whether or not they’re ethnically Sephardic. By tradition, a Sephardic or Mizrahi (a.k.a. Oriental Jews; Jews who lived in the Muslim world) who married into an Orthodox or Haredi (a.k.a. ultra-Orthodox) Ashkenazi Jewish family raises her kids to be Ashkenazi Jews.

On the other hand, an Ashkenazi woman who married a Sephardi or Mizrahi is expected to take on Sephardic practices & the kids will “inherit” a Sephardic identity. Though in practice, many families do compromise. A “convert” usually follows the practice of the rabbinical court (beth din) that converted them.

Culturally, an Ashkenazi Jew can be identified by the concept of Yiddishkeit, which means “Jewishness” in the Yiddish language. Before the Haskalah (a.k.a. the Jewish Enlightenment) & the emancipation of Jews in Europe, this meant the study of the Torah & the Talmud for men, & communal life governed by the observance of Jewish Law for men & women.

From the Rhineland to Riga (the largest city in Latvia) to Romania, most Jews prayed in liturgical Ashkenazi Hebrew, & spoke Yiddish in their secular (worldly) lives. But with modernization, Yiddishkeit now includes not just Orthodoxy & Hasidism, but a broader range of movements, ideologies, practices, & traditions in which Ashkenazi have participated & somehow kept a sense of Jewishness. Although pockets of Jews still speak Yiddish, Yiddishkeit can be identified in manners of speech, styles of humor, & in patterns of association.

As Ashkenazi Jews moved away from Europe, mostly in the form of aliyah to Israel. Or immigration to North America, South Africa, Europe (particularly France), & Latin America, the geographic isolation has given way to mixing with other cultures, & with non-Ashkenazi Jews who, similarly, are no longer isolated in distinct geographic locales.

Hebrew has replaced Yiddish as the primary Jewish language for many Ashkenazi Jews. Although many Hasidic & Hareidi groups still use Yiddish in daily life. Aliyah is the immigration of Jews from the diaspora to, historically, the geographic Land of Israel or the Palestine region, where the State of Israel was established.

France’s blended Jewish community is typical of the cultural recombination that’s going on among Jews throughout the world. Although France expelled its original Jewish population in the Middle Ages, by the time of the French Revolution, there were 2 distinct Jewish populations.

One consisted of Sephardic Jews, originally refugees from the Inquisition (which no one expects! Sorry, we’re Monty Python fans here.) & concentrated in the southwest. While the other community was Ashkenazi, concentrated in formerly German Alsace, & mainly speaking a German dialect similar to Yiddish.

The 3rd community of Provencal Jews living in Comtat Venaissin was technically outside France, & was later absorbed into the Sephardim. Comtat Venaissin (called Comtat, for short) was a part of the Papal States from 1274 to 1791.

But after emancipation, a sense of a unified French Jewry emerged, especially when France was wracked by the Dreyfus Affair in the 1890s. (We’ll be doing a post about the Dreyfus Affair.) In the 1920s & 30s, Ashkenazi Jews from Europe arrived in large numbers as refugees from antisemitism, the Russian Revolution, & the economic turmoil of the Great Depression.

By the 1930s, Paris had a vibrant Yiddish culture, & many Jews were involved in diverse political movements. After the Vichy years & the Holocaust, the French Jewish population was augmented once again, 1st by Ashkenazi refugees from Central Europe, & later by Sephardi immigrants & refugees from North Africa, many of them francophone. Francophone refers to people/organizations who use French (language) regularly.

Ashkenazi Jews didn’t transmit their traditions or achievements by text. Instead, these traditions were passed down orally from one generation to the next. The desire to maintain pre-Holocaust traditions relating to Ashkenazi culture has often been met with criticism by Jews in Eastern Europe.

In an ethnic sense, an Ashkenazi Jew is a descendant of the Jews who settled in the Central European region of “Ashkenaz.” For roughly 1,000 years, the Ashkenazim were a reproductively isolated population in Europe.

Despite living in many countries, with little inflow or outflow of countries from migration, conversion, or intermarriage with other groups, including other Jews. Since the mid-20th century, many Ashkenazi Jews have intermarried, both with members of other Jewish communities & non-Jews.

Religious persecution of the Jews in Western & Central Europe led to a significant migration of the Ashkenazi Jews into Eastern Europe. This resulted in a major cultural divide between Western/Central & Eastern Ashkenazi communities. In particular, this was reflected in the division of Yiddish into Western & Eastern Yiddish dialects. As well as in other cultural distinctions: traditions, food, dress, etc.

Initially, the Jews of Eastern Europe enjoyed relative freedom in terms of movement, being invited by the kings of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Over time, the situation was reversed. By the 19th century, the Jews in the West had gradually been integrated into the general society.

While the Eastern Ashkenazi maintained their strict Jewish traditions & were mostly confined to ghettos, especially in the Pale of Settlement of the Russian Empire, which incorporated a considerable amount of land where the Eastern Ashkenazi lived: Poland & Lithuania.

Well-known differences in practices include:

• Observance of Passover (Pesach)
  • Ashkenazi Jews traditionally refrain from eating legumes, grain, millet, & rice. Quinoa has become accepted as a food grain in North American communities. Sephardi Jews typically don’t prohibit these foods.
• Notwithstanding stricter requirements for the ACTUAL slaughter, Sephardi Jews permit the rear portions of an animal after proper Halakhic removal of the sciatic nerve. While many Ashkenazi Jews don’t.
• Ashkenazi Jews often name newborns after deceased family members, not after living relatives. Sephardi Jews often name their kids after their grandparents, even if those grandparents are still living. An exception to this is among Dutch Jews, where Ashkenazi for centuries used naming conventions otherwise attributed exclusively to Sephardim, such as Chuts. Chuts is the name given to Jews who immigrated to London from the Netherlands in the 1850s-1860s.
• Ashkenazi tefillins are wound toward the body, not away from it. Ashkenazim put on the tefillin while standing up. Other Jews generally do so while sitting down. A tefillin(s) is/are sets of small black leather boxes with leather straps having scrolls of parchment written with verses of the Torah inside.
• The prayer shawl (tallit/tallis) is worn by all Ashkenazi men AFTER marriage. Except for Western European Ashkenazi men who wear it from the bar mitzvah. In Sephardi or Mizrahi Judaism, the prayer shawl is commonly worn from early childhood.

The term Ashkenazi also refers to the Nusach Ashkenaz, the liturgical tradition used by Ashkenazi Jews in their siddur (prayer book). A nusach is defined by a liturgical tradition’s choice of prayers, the text of prayers & melodies used in the singing of prayers. 2 other major forms of nusach among Ashkenazi Jews are Nusach Sefard (not to be confused with the Sephardic ritual), which is the general Polish Hasidic nusach, and Nusach Ari, used by those in Chabad.

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SIGUE ⬇️

Como ocurre con muchos grupos minoritarios, resulta complicado separar los hechos de la propaganda.

Las autoridades eclesiásticas les atribuyeron numerosos comportamientos escandalosos.

Entre las acusaciones figuraban:

reuniones clandestinas;
desprecio absoluto por la autoridad religiosa;
rechazo del matrimonio tradicional;
supuestas prácticas de amor libre;
poligamia;
inmoralidad sexual.

Sin embargo, los historiadores actuales consideran que no existen pruebas sólidas que demuestren estas acusaciones.
La mayoría proceden de escritos elaborados por sus adversarios religiosos y políticos, algo muy habitual en la Europa del siglo XVIII.

Lo que sí está bien documentado es que su rechazo del pecado original y de las penas eternas hizo que muchos vecinos los vieran como personas peligrosas para el orden moral establecido.

El enfrentamiento con José II
José II era hijo de la emperatriz María Teresa y gobernó convencido de que el Estado debía estar por encima de la Iglesia.
Impulsó profundas reformas para modernizar sus dominios: limitó el poder del clero, cerró monasterios contemplativos que consideraba "inútiles", reformó la administración, suavizó la censura y promulgó el Edicto de Tolerancia de 1781.
Paradójicamente, esa misma política de tolerancia no alcanzó a los abrahamitas, ya que su religión no encajaba dentro de ninguna de las confesiones aceptadas por el Estado.

José II promulgó el famoso Edicto de Tolerancia en 1781, permitiendo cierta libertad religiosa a luteranos, calvinistas y ortodoxos.

Los abrahamitas pensaron inicialmente que también quedarían protegidos.

Se equivocaban.

Como no pertenecían oficialmente a ninguna confesión reconocida, quedaron fuera del decreto.

Las autoridades les ofrecieron registrarse como miembros de alguna religión aceptada por el Estado.

Se negaron.

Aquella decisión tuvo graves consecuencias.

Muchas familias perdieron sus propiedades, numerosos hombres fueron incorporados por la fuerza a regimientos destinados a las fronteras del Imperio y otros miembros del grupo fueron dispersados y deportados hacia distintas zonas de Transilvania.

En apenas unos años, la comunidad prácticamente desapareció.

¿Desaparecieron realmente?

Oficialmente sí.

Sin embargo, durante todo el siglo XIX circularon rumores sobre familias aisladas en zonas montañosas de Bohemia que seguían transmitiendo en secreto las antiguas creencias abrahamitas de generación en generación.

Algunas enciclopedias religiosas del siglo XIX mencionan estas noticias, aunque nunca pudieron confirmarse de forma definitiva.

Hoy la mayoría de historiadores considera que, si existieron esos supervivientes, debieron ser grupos muy pequeños que terminaron integrándose en otras comunidades religiosas.

𝑳𝒐𝒔 𝒍𝒍𝒂𝒎𝒂𝒅𝒐𝒔 𝒂𝒃𝒓𝒂𝒉𝒂𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒔 𝒔𝒊𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒔

Existe además un tercer grupo mucho menos conocido.

Algunas fuentes medievales mencionan comunidades vinculadas a un personaje llamado Abraham o Ibrahim de Antioquía, a las que en ocasiones se denomina abrahamitas.

La información es muy escasa y procede casi exclusivamente de autores cristianos que escribían contra las herejías.

Según esos textos, negaban la divinidad de Jesús y fueron acusados de idolatría, doctrinas gnósticas y comportamientos inmorales.

También aparecen relacionados con los Paulicianos, un movimiento religioso surgido en Armenia entre los siglos VII y IX que rechazaba numerosos elementos de la Iglesia oficial y que, en algunos momentos, llegó a enfrentarse militarmente al Imperio bizantino.

No obstante, los historiadores modernos son muy prudentes con estas afirmaciones.
La mayor parte de la información procede de sus enemigos, por lo que resulta difícil distinguir qué hay de realidad y qué pertenece a la propaganda religiosa de la época.

Los abrahamitas nunca fueron un gran movimiento religioso, pero dejaron una huella mucho mayor de lo que cabría esperar por su reducido número.

Los monjes de Constantinopla acabaron convertidos en símbolo de resistencia frente al poder imperial.

Los de Bohemia representan uno de los ejemplos más curiosos de búsqueda de una religión basada únicamente en la figura de Abraham, al margen del judaísmo y del cristianismo tradicionales.

Y los supuestos abrahamitas sirios siguen siendo uno de esos grupos envueltos en el misterio, conocidos casi exclusivamente por las acusaciones de quienes los combatieron.

Como ocurre tantas veces en la historia, la verdad quedó enterrada entre documentos oficiales, propaganda, persecuciones y leyendas.

▣▣▣▣▣▣▣▣▣▣▣▣▣▣▣▣▣▣

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VoC7gPBLjdM

#historia #abrahamitas #bizancio #bohemia #religión #curiosidadeshistóricas #edadmedia #imperiobizantino #historiadesconocida #ecosdelpasado

by Ondřej Trojan

https://tmblr.co/Z7VXvxjg7eG7mi00

#ondrej #documentary #ondřej #trojan #document #leica #abstraction #camera #monochrom #czech #bohemia #monochrome #street #black #shadow #people #artphoto #streets #light #urban #leicam11 #mono #czechia #bnw #dark #white #leicam #50 #mm #flickr

These sandwiches kill me.

"Bohemian Sandwiches.

"Rub cottage cheese* to a paste with Worcestershire sauce and a few olives finely chopped. Spread between buttered slices of white bread."

So deviant!

*The recipe is from 1903 so "cottage cheese" is unlikely to be what Americans know as "cottage cheese" today.

#Recipes #Sandwiches #Bohemia

https://www.indignity.net/the-stairs-chapter-35/

by Ondřej Trojan

https://tmblr.co/Z7VXvxjYjropCu00

#ondrej #documentary #ondřej #trojan #document #leica #abstraction #camera #monochrom #czech #bohemia #street #black #shadow #people #monochrome #streets #light #urban #mono #czechia #bnw #artphoto #dark #white #leicam #leicam3 #50 #mm #kodak

Today is the feast day of Ivan the Hermit of #Bohemia, who died in either 845 or 904 https://cromwell-intl.com/travel/czech-republic/prague/?s=mb #travel #Prague #history

Wenceslus II of #Bohemia built an empire stretching from the Baltic Sea to the Danube River, he died OTD in 1305, probably of tuberculosis https://cromwell-intl.com/travel/czech-republic/prague/?s=mb #travel #Prague #history

by Ondřej Trojan

https://tmblr.co/Z7VXvxjWoGIDeq00

#ondrej #documentary #ondřej #trojan #document #leica #abstraction #camera #monochrom #czech #bohemia #street #black #shadow #people #streets #light #urban #mono #czechia #bnw #artphoto #dark #white #leicam #50 #monochrome #mm #kodak #leicam3

[Artikel] 𝗧𝗿𝗲𝗶𝗻𝗿𝗲𝗶𝘀 𝘃𝗮𝗻 𝗱𝗲 𝗺𝗮𝗮𝗻𝗱: 𝗯𝗼𝗲𝗺𝗲𝗹 𝘀𝗹𝗶𝗻𝗴𝗲𝗿𝗲𝗻𝗱 𝗹𝗮𝗻𝗴𝘀 𝗱𝗲 𝗟𝗮𝗯𝗲 𝗱𝗼𝗼𝗿 𝗕𝗼𝗵𝗲𝗲𝗺𝘀 𝗭𝘄𝗶𝘁𝘀𝗲𝗿𝗹𝗮𝗻𝗱

Een schitterende #Treinreis voert langs de rivier de Labe, door de groene wildernis van #Tsjechië, over #Europa’s grootste natuurlijke brug en dwars door een Wilde Kloof.

https://www.volkskrant.nl/volkskrant-magazine/treinreis-van-de-maand-boemel-slingerend-langs-de-labe-door-boheems-zwitserland~b7fbe8941/ via @volkskrant

📷 CC0 Public Domain via #Pxhere

#Trein #Treinreizen #Travel #Railway #Railways #Railroad #TjechischeRepubliek #CzechRepublic #Bohemen #Bohemia

Nagelstudios: Ein Phänomen. Aus dem nichts entstanden und nun massenhaft vorhanden. Bei zu viel Konkurrenz muss man sich über Alternativen Gedanken machen. Verständlich. Wann wird es mit den Barber Shops weiter gehen? :mastocheeky:

Nagelstudios für Drogenhandel im #Darknet und Geldwäsche | Security https://www.heise.de/news/Nagelstudios-fuer-Drogenhandel-im-Darknet-und-Geldwaesche-11308900.html #Nemesis #KingdomMarket #AlphaBay #Archetyp #Incognito #Bohemia #ASAP #Tor2Door #WhiteHouseMarket #EmpireMarket #CyberCrime #cryptocurrencies #cryptocurrency

Today is the feast day of John of Nepomuk, the saint of #Bohemia who was drowned in the Vltava river at the behest of Wenceslaus, King of Bohemia https://cromwell-intl.com/travel/czech-republic/prague/?s=mb #travel #Prague #history

George of Poděbrady, born OTD in 1420, was King of #Bohemia from 1458 to his death in 1471; he was known for his idea and attempt to establish common European institutions https://cromwell-intl.com/travel/czech-republic/prague/?s=mb #travel #Prague #history

A music break for sanity's sake. #music #rusalka #moravia #bohemia #czechia #opera #aria
https://youtu.be/oMGC362KszY?si=yLk6DNidx3xNOBsi

Duke Oldřich of #Bohemia deposed and blinded his brother Jaromír OTD in 1012 https://cromwell-intl.com/travel/czech-republic/prague/?s=mb #travel #Prague #history

Vladislaus I, Duke of #Bohemia, died OTD in 1125 https://cromwell-intl.com/travel/czech-republic/prague/?s=mb #travel #history

Vladislaus I was Duke of #Bohemia from 1109 to 1117 and again from 1120 to his death OTD in 1125 https://cromwell-intl.com/travel/czech-republic/prague/?s=mb #travel #Prague #history

Gertrude of Babenberg was Duchess consort of #Bohemia from 1140 until her death OTD in 1150, by her marriage to the Přemyslid duke Vladislaus II https://cromwell-intl.com/travel/czech-republic/prague/?s=mb #travel #Prague #history

Bohemian physician and botanist Friedrich von Berchtold, who died OTD in 1876, co-authored the important taxonomic work, O Prirozenosti Rostlin https://cromwell-intl.com/travel/czech-republic/prague/?s=mb #travel #Prague #Bohemia

Henry of #Bohemia, who died OTD in 1335, was Duke of Carinthia, Landgrave of Carniola, and Count of Tyrol from 1295 until his death; and King of Bohemia and Margrave of Moravia in 1306 and again 1307-1310 https://cromwell-intl.com/travel/czech-republic/prague/?s=mb #travel

Today is the feast day of Saint Procopius, 11th century Abbot of Sázava in #Bohemia https://cromwell-intl.com/travel/czech-republic/prague/?s=mb #travel #history

Franz Anton von Sporck, who died OTD in 1738 in #Bohemia, was one of the most notable cultural and intellectual figures in central Europe in the early 18th century https://cromwell-intl.com/travel/czech-republic/prague/?s=mb #travel #history

Blade of a ceremonial sword, Germany, Austria, or Czechia, ~1260 AD

https://piefed.social/c/historyartifacts/p/1931708/blade-of-a-ceremonial-sword-germany-austria-or-czechia-1260-ad

Bedřich (or Frederick), a member of the Přemyslid dynasty, was Duke of #Bohemia from 1172 to 1173 and again from 1178 to his death OTD in 1189 https://cromwell-intl.com/travel/czech-republic/prague/?s=mb #travel #Prague #history