#5th-century — Public Fediverse posts

Antipopes

In Latin called antipapa. This is a person/man who claims to be the Bishop of Rome (or commonly, the Pope) & leader of the Catholic Church in opposition to the “officially” elected pontiff.

Between the 3rd & mid-15th centuries, antipopes were supported by factions within the Church itself & secular rulers. While there are modern claimants to the papacy that still take place, they’re rarely given serious consideration by either the public or the Church. Sometimes it was different which of 2 claimants should be Pope & antipope, like between Popes Leo VIII & Benedict V.

Hippolytus of Rome is commonly considered to be the earliest antipope. Hippolytus headed a separate group within the Church in Rome against Pope Callixtus I. Hippolytus was reconciled to Callixtus’ 2nd successor, Pope Pontian. Both he & Pontian are honored as saints by the Catholic Church with a shared feast day on August 13.

Eusebius quotes from an unnamed earlier writer the story of Natalius, a 3rd-century priest who accepted the bishopric of the Adoptionists, a heretical group in Rome. Natalius soon repented, & tearfully begged Pope Zephyrinus to receive him into Communion.

Novatian claimed the See of Rome in opposition to Pope Cornelius. If Natalius & Hippolytus were excluded because of the uncertainties about them, Novatian could then be said to be the 1st antipope.

The period in which antipopes was the most was during the struggles between the popes & the Holy Roman Emperors of the 11th & 12th centuries. The emperors frequently imposed their nominees to further their causes. The Pope sometimes sponsored rival imperial claimants (anti-kings) in Germany to overcome a particular emperor.

The Western Schism (which began in 1378, when French cardinals claimed that the election of Pope Urban VI was invalid), elected antipope Clement VII as a rival to the “Roman Pope,” leading eventually to 2 competing lines (because Clement VII moved back to Avignon) & the Pisan line.

The Pisan line, which began in 1409, was named after the town of Pisa (of Leaning Tower fame). This is where the Pisan Council had elected antipope Alexander V as a 3rd claimant. To end the schism, in May 1415, the Council of Constance deposed Antipope John XXIII of the Pisan line.

Pope Gregory XII of the Roman line resigned in July 1415. In 1417, the council also formally deposed Antipope Benedict XIII of Avignon. But he absolutely refused to resign. (It’s kinda hard to have power when no one else recognizes said power!)

Afterwards, Pope Martin V was elected & was accepted everywhere except in the small & rapidly diminishing area of influence of Benedict XIII.

There have, officially, only been 6 Popes who’ve actually resigned the papacy:

• Pontian, 235, resigned while exiled in Roman salt mines
• John XVIII, 1009, quit after a financial deal or bribe
• Benedict IX, 1045, overwhelmed with the job
• Celestine V, 1294
• Gregory XII, 1415, quit to end the Western Schism
• Benedict XVI, 2013, quit due to failing health & old age

The Patriarch of Alexandria, the historical center of Christianity in Egypt since the Roman Empire, has historically also held the title of Pope, & as a result, a person who claims that title in direct opposition to a generally accepted Pope of Alexandria may be considered an antipope.

The title is simultaneously claimed by the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, the Coptic Catholic Church, & the Melkite Catholic Church (the latter 2, while being in full communion/cooperation with Rome, still maintain the position of Patriarch of Alexander as a significant church leader).

In the modern day, with the rise of ecumenism & the recognition of Christianity’s complicated history, these 4 men typically don’t view 1 another as antipopes. But rather as successors to different lines of apostolic succession resulting from theological disputes in the 5th century.

There have been certain instances where the official declaration of an antipope has been deemed necessary. For example, in 2006, former lector of the Coptic Orthodox Church, Max Michel, who had previously formed the independent Archbishop of Egypt & the Middle East under the name Maximus I, effectively became an antipope of Alexandria.

His claims to the Alexandrian papacy were formally dismissed in a joint statement by both the Coptic Orthodox Pope Shenouda III & Pope Theodore II of the Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria. Similarly, during the schism that happened in the Armenian Catholic Church in 1873, an election was held which voted Jacob Pahtarian into the position of Patriarch of the Patriarchate of Cilicia, which was in opposition to the Pope-appointed Patriarch, Andon Bedros IX Hassoun. Pahtarian was referred to by some as an “anti-Patriarch.”

Some scholars are less willing to refer to the “pretenders” as antipopes. As the term has historically been used in reference to those who claim to be the bishop of Rome, the apostolic successors to St. Peter. While the patriarchate of Alexandria originated with St. Mark.

Some sedevacantist conspiracy theorists consider the incumbent Pope to be the antipope. For various reasons, they believe the current Pope is illegitimate. Sedevacantism is a traditionalist Catholic movement which holds that since the 1958 death of Pius XII the occupants of the Holy See aren’t valid Popes due to their espousal of 1 or more heresies & that, for lack of a valid Pope, the See of Rome is vacant.

For supporters of the Giuseppe Siri conspiracy theory, which holds that white smoke seen on the 1st day of the conclave (This is unheard of! White smoke during a conclave means a Pope has been elected. No Pope in the history of ever was elected on the 1st day!) was announcing the selection of Giuseppe Siri as Pope Gregory XVII until he was forced to stand down, the Pope that was elected in Siri’s place, John XXIII, was an antipope as Siri was still the lawfully elected Pope.

Similarly, for supporters of Benevacantism (the belief that Pope Benedict XVI didn’t validly resign), Pope Francis would be considered an antipope. A similar fringe theory, “Catholic survivantism,” states that Pope Paul VI (born 1897) is still alive. Thus, all successive Popes are antipopes. Believers of this “theory” also believe that the “Paul VI” that died in 1978 was an actor, & the real Paul IV is being held in prison.

For conclavists, the argument that the current Pope is illegitimate or an antipope (either wholly or sedeprivationally) is important as it lends their own claims & conclave legitimacy. The most common conclavist claim is that Pius XII was the last true Pope, & that all subsequent Popes are antipopes.

However, some place the date even earlier, with the Papacy ending with John XXIII. All these claims surround the reforms of Vatican II or the publication of the revised Roman Rite.

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Samael

Also spelled Smil, Samil, or Samiel.

He’s an archangel in Talmudic & post-Talmudic tradition. He’s a figure who is the accuser or adversary (Satan in the Book of Job), seducer, & destroying angel (in the Book of Exodus).

Although many of his functions resemble the Christian idea of Satan, to the point of being sometimes classified as a fallen angel. He’s not necessarily evil, since his functions also result in good, like destroying sinners.

In Midrashic texts, he’s considered to be a member of the heavenly host, often with grim & destructive duties. 1 of Samael’s most significant roles in Jewish lore is that of the main angel of Death & the head of satans. He appears frequently in the story of the Garden of Eden & engineered the Fall of Adam (& Eve) with a snake in writings, during the Second Temple period. However, the serpent isn’t a form of Samael. But a beast he rode, like a camel.

In a single account, he’s also believed to be the father of Cain. As well as the partner of Lilith.

In early Talmudic & Midrashic literature, he hasn’t yet been associated with Satan. Only in later Midrashim is he given the title “head of satans.”

As a guardian angel & prince of Rome, he’s Israel’s archenemy. By the beginning of Jewish culture in Europe, Samael had been established as a representative of Christianity due to his identification with Rome.

In some Gnostic cosmologies, Samael’s role as a source of evil became identified with the Demiurge, the creator of the material world.

Samael was 1st mentioned during the Second Temple period & immediately after its destruction. He’s 1st mentioned in the Book of Enoch, which is a part of the Jewish apocrypha, along with other rebellious angels. In 1 Enoch, he’s 1 of the Watchers who descended to Earth to have adult spicy time with human women. Although he’s not their leader. Samayaza is their leader. (A post about Samyaza is coming soon. Research on him is ongoing, right now.)

In the Greek Apocalypse of Baruch, he’s the dominant evil figure. Samael plants the actual Tree of the Knowledge of Good & Evil. He’s then banished & cursed by God. To take revenge, he tempts Adam & Eve into sin by taking the form of the serpent.

He further appears as the embodiment of evil in the Ascension of Isaiah & is called by various names:

• Melkira, “King of evil/wicked.”
• Malkira/Malchira, “Messenger of evil.”
• Belkira, “Lord of the Wall.”
• Bechira, “Elect/Chosen of evil.”

The names Belial & Satan are also applied to him. He gains control of King Manasseh to accuse Isaiah of treason.

In Talmudic & Midrash, Samael’s role as an agent of evil is relatively marginal. From the 5th or 6th century onward, he becomes 1 of the most prominent among the demonic entities. Samael hasn’t been identified with the angel of Death in the Talmud.

In the Exodus Rabbah (the Exodus Midrash), Samael is pictured as the accuser in the heavenly court & tempter to sin, while Michael defends Israel’s actions. Here, Samael is identified with Satan. While “Satan” describes his function as an “accuser,” Samael is considered his real/proper name.

He also fulfills the role of the Angel of Death when he comes to take the body of Moses & is called the leader of Satan.

The title of “satan” is also applied to him in the Midrash Pirkei De-Rabbi Eliezer, where he was the chief of the fallen angels, & a 12-winged seraph. According to the text, Samael opposed the creation of Adam & descended to Earth to tempt him into evil.

Riding the serpent, he convinces Eve to eat the Forbidden Fruit. His role here might be inspired by the Islamic idea of Iblis, who refused to prostrate himself before Adam because he consists of fire & Adam merely of dust. This Midrash also reveals that Samael sired Cain with Eve.

In the smaller Midrash, he’s the ruler of Hell. Several sources (like Yalkut Shimoni) describe him as the guardian angel of Esau, relating him to Rome, the 1 who wrestled with Jacob, the angel who ordered Abraham to sacrifice Isaac, & a patron of Edom. Which makes sense because Esau was the “father” of Edom.

In Kabbalah, Samael is described as the “severity of God.” He is listed as 5 of the archangels of the world of Beri’ah. Among his portions are Esau, the people who inherit the sword & bring war; the goats & se’irim (demons); & the destroyer angel.

Both Samael & Lilith are major demons in earlier Jewish literature traditions. They don’t appear paired together until the 2nd half of the 13th century, when they’re introduced together. Lilith is a demon created alongside Adam. She wasn’t originally created as a demon. She morphed into a demoness down the road. She was originally created as Adam’s (1st) wife. Lilith then becomes Samael’s bride. With her, Samael created a host of demon kids, including a son, the “Sword of Samael” (or of Asmodai).

In the Kabbalistic work Treatise on the Left Emanation, Samael is part of the qlippoth (Qlippoth is the representation of evil/impure spiritual forces in Jewish mysticism), prince of all demons, & husband of Lilith. The 2 are said to parallel Adam & Eve being emanated together from the Throne of Glory as a counterpart. Asmodeus is also mentioned to be subservient to Samael & married to a young (or alternate), lesser Lilith.

In the Zohar (1 of Kabbalah’s principal works), Samael is described as a leader of the divine forces of destruction, part of the qlippoth. He’s mentioned again as the serpent’s rider. He’s also described as having mated with Eisheth Zenunim (a princess of the qilppoth); Na’amah (She originated from & is often mixed with another Naamah, sister to Tubal-Cain); & Agrat bat Mahlat (a demoness), all being “angels” of sacred prostitution.

It’s also said that the founder of Hasidic Judaism, Baal Shem Tov, summoned Samael to make him do his bidding.

Samael is also pictured as the angel of Death & 1 of the 7 archangels, the ruler over the 5th Heaven (This refers to 1 of the 7 firmaments, or physical layers, located above the open sky.) & commander of 2 million angels, such as the chief of all destroying angels. Think about the angel(s) who destroyed the Egyptians who didn’t have the lamb’s blood on their doorframes (Exodus 11).

In 3 separate Gnostic texts (found in the Nag Hammadi library), Samael is 1 of the 3 names of the Demiurge. He had 2 other names in these texts: Yaldabaoth & Saklas. After Yaldabaoth claims sole divinity for himself, the voice of Sophia (“wisdom,” the personification of wisdom) comes forth calling him Samael, due to his ignorance.

In Hypostasis of the Archons, Samael is the 1st sinner. The First Epistle of John calls the devil a sinner from the beginning. His appearance is that of a lion-faced serpent.

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Apotheosis

This is also called divinization or deification. It’s from the Latin deificato, meaning “making divine.” This is the glorification of a subject to divine levels & commonly, the treatment of a human being, any other living thing, or an abstract idea in the likeness of a deity.

The original sense of apotheosis relates to religion & is the subject of many works of art. Figuratively “apotheosis” may be used in almost any context for “the deification, glorification, or exaltation of a principle, practice, etc.” So normally attached to an abstraction of some sort.

In religion, apotheosis was a feature of many religions in the ancient world. Some that are active today. It requires a belief that there’s a possibility of newly created God’s, so a polytheistic belief system.

The Abrahamic religions of Christianity, Islam, & Judaism don’t allow this. Though many recognize minor sacred categories such as saints. They’re created by a process called canonization. In Christian theology, there’s a concept of the faithful becoming god-like, called divinization or in Eastern Christianity theosis.

In Hinduism, there’s some range for new deities. A human may be deified by becoming regarded as an avatar of an established deity, usually a major one, or by being regarded as a new, independent deity (usually a minor one), or a mix of the 2.

In art, an apotheosis scene usually shows the subject in the Heavens or rising towards them. They’re often partnered by a number of angels, putti, personifications of virtues, or similar figures.

Especially from Baroque art onwards apotheosis scenes may show rulers, generals, or artists purely as an honorific symbol. In many cases, the “religious” context is classical Greco-Roman pagan religion, like The Apotheosis of Voltaire, which features Apollo. The Apotheosis of Washington (1865) sits high in the dome of the United States of America Capitol Building is another example. Personification of places or abstractions are also shown receiving an apotheosis. The classic composition was suited for artistic placement on ceilings or inside domes.

Before the Hellenistic period, imperial cults were known in ancient Egypt (pharaohs) & Mesopotamia (from Naran-Sin through Hammurabi). In the New Kingdom of Egypt, all deceased pharaohs were deified as the god Osiris, having been identified as Horus while on the throne. They were sometimes referred to as the “son” of other various deities.

The architect Imhotep was defied after his passing away. Though the process seems to have been gradual. This took over 1,000 years, by which time he had become associated with medicine. About a dozen non-royal ancient Egyptians became regarded as deities.

Ancient Greek & Roman religions have many characters who were born as humans but became gods. Like Disney’s Hercules. They’re usually made divine by 1 of the main deities, the 12 Olympians. In the Roman story of Cupid & Psyche, Zeus gave the ambrosia of the gods to the mortal Psyche. This transformed her into a goddess herself.

In the case of the Hellenistic queen Berenice II of Egypt was deified like other rulers of the Ptolemaic dynasty. The court dispersed a myth that her hair, that was cut off to fulfill a vow, had its own apotheosis before becoming the Coma Berenices, a group of stars that still bear her name.

In the Greek world, the 1st leader who granted himself diving honors was Philip II of Macedon. At the wedding to his 6th wife, Philip’s enthroned image was carried in procession among the Olympian gods. Such Hellenistic state leaders might be raised to a status equal to the gods before death, like Alexander the Great, or afterwards, like members of the Ptolemaic dynasty.

A heroic cult status that’s similar to apotheosis was also an honor given to a few reversed artists of the distant past, such as Homer.

Up to the end of the Roman Republic, the god Quirinus was the only 1 the Romans accepted as having undergone apotheosis, for his identification/syncretism with Romulus. Syncretism is the practice of meshing together different beliefs & various schools of thought. Eventually apotheosis in Ancient Rome was a process whereby a deceased ruler was recognized as divine by their successors. This was usually done by a decree of the Senate & popular consent.

The 1st of these cases was the posthumous deification of the last Roman dictator Julius Caesar in 42 BC by his adopted son, the triumvir Caesar Octavian. In addition to showing respect, the present ruler often deified a popular predecessor to legitimize himself & gain popularity himself & gain popularity with the people.

A vote in the Roman Senate, in the later Empire confirming an imperial decree, was the normal official process. But this sometimes followed a period with the unofficial use of deific language or imagery for the individual. This was often done rather discreetly within the imperial circle.

There was then a public ceremony, called a consecratio, including the release of an eagle which flew high. This represents the ascent of the deified person’s soul to Heaven. Imagery featuring the ascent, sometimes using a chariot, was common on coins & in other art.

The largest & most famous example in art in a relief on the base of the Column of Antoninus Pius, showing the emperor & his wife, Faustina the Elder, being carried up by a much larger winged figure, described as representing “Eternity,” as the personifications of “Roma” & the Campus Martius sit below, & eagles fly above. The imperial couple are represented as Jupiter & Juno (or Zeus & Hera).

The historian Dio Cassius, who said he was present, gives a detailed description of the large, & lavish, public consecratio of Perinax, emperor for 3 months in 193, ordered by Septimius Severus.

At the height of the imperial cult during the Roman Empire, sometimes the emperor’s deceased loved ones (heirs, empresses, or lovers) like Hadrian’s Antinous were deified as well.

Deified people were posthumously given the title ‘Divus’ for men & ‘Diva’ for women to their names to signify their divinity. Traditional Roman religion distinguished between a deus (god) & divus (a mortal who became divine or deified), though not consistently. Temple & columns were erected to provide a space for worship.

The imperial cult was mainly popular in the provinces. Especially in the Eastern Empire, where many cultures were well used to deified rulers, & less popular in Rome itself, & among traditionalists & intellectuals.

Some privately, & cautiously, ridiculed the apotheosis of inept & feeble emperors, as in the satire The Pumkinification of (the Divine) Claudius. This is usually attributed to Seneca.

Numerous mortals have been deified into the Taoist pantheon. Examples are Guan Yi, Iron-crutch Li, & Fan Kuai. Song dynasty general Yue Fei was deified during the Ming dynasty. He’s considered by some practitioners to be 1 of the 3 highest-ranking heavenly generals. The Ming dynasty epic Investiture of the Gods deals heavily with deification legends.

In the complicated, & variable, conceptions of deity in Buddhism, the achievement of Buddhahood may be regarded as an achievable goal for the faithful. Many significant deities are considered to have begun as normal people, from Gautama Buddha (the original Buddha & the creator of Buddhism) downwards. Most of these are seen as avatars or re-births of earlier figures.

Some significant Hindu deities, in particular Rama, were also born as humans. He’s seen as an avatar of Vishnu. In more modern times, Swaminarayan is an undoubted & well-documented historical figure, who’s regarded by some Hindus as an avatar of Vishnu, or as being a still more elevated deity. Bharat Mata (Mother India) began as a national personification devised by a group of Bengali intellectuals in the late 19th century. But now it receives some worship.

Various Hindu & Buddhist rulers in the past have been represented as deities, especially after death, from India to Indonesia. Jayavarman VII, King of the Khmer Empire the 1st Buddhist king of Cambodia, had his own features used for the many statues of Buddha/Avalokitevara he erected.

The extreme personality cult instituted by the founder of North Korea, Kim Il-Sung, has been to represent a deification. And continues to this day with the current leader. Even the nation is admittedly atheist.

In Christian theology, instead of the word “apotheosis,” they use the words “deification” or “divinization” or the Greek word “theosis.” Pre-Reformation, & mainstream theology, in both East & West, views Jesus Christ as the preexisting God who undertook mortal existence. Not as a mortal being who attained divinity. A view known as adoptionism. Adoptionism is an early Christian non-Trinitarian doctrine that holds that Jesus was born a mere human being. But Jesus was later adopted by God as His son, usually at Jesus’ baptism or resurrection, rather than being divine from eternity.

It holds that he has made it possible for human beings to be raised to the level of sharing the divine nature as II Peter 1:4 states that he became human to make humans “partakers of the divine nature.”

In John 10:34, Jesus referenced Psalm 82:6 when he stated: “Is it not written in your Law, I have said you are gods?” Other authors stated: “For this is why the Word became man, & the Son of God became the Son of man: so that Man, by entering into communion with the Word & thus receiving divine sonship, might be made God.” Accusations of self deification to some degree may have been placed on heretical such as the Waldensians.

The language of II Peter is taken up by St. Irenaeus, in his famous phrase, “if the Word has been made man, it is so that men may be made gods.” It becomes the standard in Greek theology. In the 14th century, St. Athanasius repeats Irenaeus almost word for word. In the 5th century, St. Cyril of Alexandria says that we shall become sons “by participation” (Greek methexis). Methexis is “group sharing,” where the audience actively participates in the performance.

Deification is the central idea in the spirituality of St. Maximus the Confessor. For whom the doctrine is the result of the Incarnation: “Deification, briefly, is the encompassion & fulfillment of all times and ages.”

The Roman Catholic Church doesn’t use the term “apotheosis” in its theology. This is equivalent to the Greek word theosis are Latin-derived words “divinization” & deification” used in the Latin tradition of the Catholic Church.

The concept has been given less prominence in Western theology than in that of the Eastern Catholic Churches. But is present in the Latin Church’s liturgical prayer.

Despite the theological differences, in the Catholic church art depictions of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary in art & the Ascension of Jesus in Christian art do share many similarities in composition to apotheosis subjects. As there are many images of saints being raised into Heaven.

Anthropolatry is the deification & worship of humans. It was practiced in ancient Japan towards their emperors. Followers of Socinianism were later accused of practicing anthropolatry.

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Eternal Security

This is also known as “once saved, always saved.” It’s the belief giving Christian believers with an absolute assurance of their final salvation.

Its development, especially in Protestantism, has given rise to a plethora of different interpretations. Especially when defining aspects of determinism, libertarian free will & the significance of personal perseverance.

In the early 5th century, Augustinian soteriology views of predestination by predetermination came about, they didn’t validate Eternal Security. Soteriology is the doctrine of salvation.

By the 16th century, this idea became meshed into the theology of John Calvin & other reformers. Calvinist circles initially embraced Eternal Security under the name of “perseverance of the saints.” Eventually, the name became a synonym of the Calvinist doctrine of perseverance independent of its practical interpretations.

Then in the early 20th century, Eternal Security started to become a defining doctrine of Southern Baptist traditionalism. Around the same time, it also became a part of Plymouth Brethren theology. In this, the 2 forms represents its main form today.

In the 1980s, the Free Grace movement voiced that Eternal Grace was independent of the idea of the “Hyper-Grace” idea.

Eternal Security is based on the faith that the believer is an elect by divine determination. This is in Calvinist circles & has the minority worldview.

In some non-Calvinist circles & the prevailing worldview, Eternal Security is based on the faith that regeneration leads to unconditional perseverance & then salvation.

In other non-Calvinist circles & currently growing in the Free Grace views, Eternal Security is based on the faith that regeneration leads to salvation independent of perseverance.

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